空气动力学阻抗算法在半干旱区的应用比较和遥感反演

结合2005年中国西北半干旱区定西试验站的观测资料,使用9种空气动力学方法,估算了阻抗和感热通量,并与涡动相关阻抗结果进行了对比,分析了5～9月涡度相关测得阻抗的平均日变化特征,结果表明:(1)由于西北干旱、半干旱区和黄土高原的稀疏植被地区在植物生长季节内存在温度高、降水少、空气干燥等特点,热量和水汽输送具有特殊性;Choudh-1、Verma-R空气动力学阻抗方法对热量和动量传输的粗糙度长度、热量和动量及水汽输送的修正函数描述得较好,空气动力学阻抗估算精度较好,由此获得的感热效果也较好,较适用于该地区。(2)风速对阻抗起主要作用;植被覆盖度增加和植被密度增大的同时也增加了热量和水汽传输的粗糙度,有助于空气动力学阻抗降低。(3)采用Choudh-1方法和遥感资料反演的阻抗效果较好。     

蒸发皿蒸发及能量变化过程的微气象观测研究

蒸发皿作为测量大气蒸发需求的仪器,在水文和气象台站广泛使用。为了深入认识蒸发皿蒸发量的物理意义,在中国西北干旱区设置了"内蒙古蒸发皿蒸发试验(IMPEEX)"。利用近地层微气象观测方法,基于能量平衡原理,对Class A、20 cm和E601B三种不同型号的蒸发皿蒸发过程进行精细观测,观测结果显示:三种蒸发皿蒸发量日变化之间存在显著差异,而这种差异主要是由蒸发皿水体与周围环境构成的非均匀性强度所控制;蒸发皿中水体越深,水温层结越显著;E601B蒸发皿水体与土壤之间的热通量约在±10 W·m-2之间波动,但日总通量几乎为0;典型晴天Class A蒸发皿水面反照率呈"U"型日变化,日平均值为0.087。蒸发皿水体能量平衡分析显示,太阳辐射和水体储热率是决定蒸发皿蒸发强度的主要能量分量,而水面感热、侧壁和底部热传导对蒸发皿蒸发量的贡献较小。     

地表湍流通量计算方法的研究综述

地表通量的计算方法主要有：以能量平衡为基础的Bowen比能量平衡法、以相似理论为基础的空气动力学方法以及以精度比较高的观测仪器为基础的涡旋相关法。本文对这些计算方法进行了简单的讨论,并介绍了涡旋相关观测系统原始资料的处理方法及一些物理量修正方案的研究进展。对存在的问题进行了一定的讨论。     

西北地区典型下垫面空气动力学阻抗估算方法改进及其验证

利用2010年古浪近地层野外观测试验取得的干旱区典型下垫面（荒滩、沙漠和农田）的观测资料,对常用的3种空气动力学阻抗算法——Verma—R算法、Liu算法、Thom算法进行了适用性检验,并通过分离Thom算法中的动量和热量粗糙度对其进行改进（下称Thom-2算法）。对比不同下垫面空气动力学阻抗估算结果发现：在沙漠和荒滩下垫面,动力因素较热力因素影响大,空气动力学阻抗与风速的指数关系较农田下垫面明显;与其他3种算法相比,考虑了热量粗糙度的Thom-2算法在各种典型下垫面上的估算结果与观测值相比偏差最小,且在较为均匀的荒滩和沙漠下垫面上估算的空气动力学阻抗精度较农田高;通过比较4种算法估算干旱区不同典型下垫面空气动力学阻抗结果,说明干旱区空气动力学阻抗的估算应考虑热力粗糙度的影响。     

地表湍流通量计算方法的研究综述

地表通量的计算方法主要有:以能量平衡为基础的Bowen比能量平衡法、以相似理论为基础的空气动力学方法以及以精度比较高的观测仪器为基础的涡旋相关法。本文对这些计算方法进行了简单的讨论,并介绍了涡旋相关观测系统原始资料的处理方法及一些物理量修正方案的研究进展。对存在的问题进行了一定的讨论。      

干旱区气象因子对蒸发皿蒸发量的影响

根据20 cm蒸发皿的几何尺寸和架设特征,对Penman蒸发公式中的辐射项Rn和储热项S进行修改,建立了20 cm蒸发皿蒸发模型。利用古浪非均匀近地层观测试验(GHUSLE)中连续14天观测的20 cm蒸发皿逐时蒸发数据对该模型进行验证。结果表明,该模型能够成功地模拟蒸发皿蒸发的日变化过程,模拟的日蒸发量均方根误差和平均相对误差分别为0.72 mm·d-1和6.7%。20 cm蒸发皿蒸发过程中太阳辐射项的贡献约占蒸发皿总体蒸发的1/3,空气动力项的贡献约占2/3。常规气象因子影响蒸发皿蒸发的敏感性试验表明,风速、空气湿度、太阳辐射和气温对蒸发皿蒸发的影响强度依次递减,其蒸发量随这4种气象因子的变化率分别为0.602,-0.590,0.528和0.370。     

石羊河流域1960～2009年参考蒸散量与蒸发皿蒸发量变化特征

以石羊河流域5个气象站点1960～2009年逐日气象资料为基础,从估算模型和统计角度计算分析了该流域参考蒸散量及蒸发皿蒸发量的变化趋势和变化原因。结果表明：过去50 a石羊河流域蒸散发呈增加趋势,个别站点达极显著水平（p＜0．01）,1960～2009年和1970～2009年不同时段的选择对分析结果有一定的影响。估算模型理论分析认为桑斯威特法计算的参考蒸散量变率主要由气温决定,蒸发皿蒸发量和彭曼蒙蒂斯公式计算的参考蒸散量变化则是辐射、气温、风速及空气饱和差共同作用的结果,而相关分析和突变检验的分析结果验证了上述结论,并得出过去50 a石羊河流域蒸发皿蒸发量和彭曼蒙蒂斯公式计算的参考蒸散量变化的主要决定因素是空气饱和差。     

滇池流域蒸发量时空变化特征及趋势分析

利用滇池流域5个气象站1961—2010年逐月的20cm口径蒸发皿蒸发量观测资料,分析了流域蒸发皿蒸发量的时空变化特征,与动力因子(风速)、热力因子(平均气温、平均气温日较差、日照时数)、水分因子(降水量、相对湿度和水汽压)和其他因子(总云量)进行相关性分析,并结合楚雄气象站同期的蒸发皿蒸发量年际变化进行了对比分析。结果表明,滇池流域年际蒸发皿蒸发量存在2~4年为主的周期变化特征;近50年滇池流域年、春季和夏季蒸发皿蒸发量均呈明显的下降趋势,流域中部及以北大部地区蒸发皿蒸发量的下降趋势较昆明气象站周边及流域的南部地区明显;滇池流域与楚雄地区年、春、秋和冬季的蒸发皿蒸发量变化基本相似,但夏季蒸发量变化差异较大;与相关气象因子的相关性分析表明,滇池流域蒸发皿蒸发量变化趋势与热力因子、动力因子呈正相关,与水分因子、其他因子呈负相关,其中平均气温日较差、日照时数、水汽压和平均风速的影响较显著。     

近50年广西蒸发量与太阳辐射关系分析

采用Mann—Kendall趋势检验方法和Pearson相关分析法计算广西全区92个气象观测站点的20cm口径蒸发皿蒸发量和太阳辐射数据(1961 2010年),分析两者变化关系,得出:,广西全区的蒸发皿蒸发量与太阳辐射两者之间存在显著正相关关系,均为显著下降趋势,桂北地区的蒸发皿蒸发量受太阳辐射的影响最为明显;在季节变化方面,春、夏、冬三季蒸发皿蒸发量存在显著减少趋势,桂南地区的蒸发能力最强,但下降趋势没有桂北和桂中地区明显。春季、夏季太阳辐射变化存在显著减少趋势,桂北地区太阳辐射变化减少趋势比桂南地区明显。     

近50年来(1960—2007年)长江流域20 cm口径蒸发皿蒸发量与太阳辐射变化的对比

利用长江流域147个气象站点1960—2007年的地面观测数据,通过计算,对比分析了长江流域20 cm口径蒸发皿蒸发量与太阳辐射的变化关系.结果表明:长江流域近50年来蒸发皿蒸发量变化和太阳辐射变化呈显著正相关关系,二者均呈现显著下降趋势,蒸发皿蒸发量随太阳辐射的变化产生相应波动变化,而且中下游地区蒸发皿蒸发量变化受太阳辐射变化的影响程度更为明显;就季节变化而言,春夏秋冬4个季节长江流域蒸发皿蒸发量变化和太阳辐射变化同样呈现明显下降趋势,春、夏、秋3个季节二者变化关系高度相关,这三季对于流域全年蒸发皿蒸发量减少的贡献也最大;长江流域太阳辐射的显著下降是导致20 cm口径蒸发皿蒸发量持续降低的主要原因之一.     

Improvement of a soil-atmosphere-transfer model for the simulation of bare soil surface energy balances in semiarid areas

A soil-atmosphere-transfer model (SATM) was evaluated using observational data from the Tongyu Cropland Station and Audubon Research Ranch in semiarid areas, where the land cover was nearly bare soil during the simulation period. Simulations by the SATM at both sites were conducted using the new and original surface thermal roughness length parameterization schemes, respectively. Comparisons of simulations and observations have demonstrated that using the new surface thermal roughness length scheme in this model made sound improvements in the simulation of soil surface temperatures, sensible heat fluxes and net radiation fluxes in the daytime at both sites, compared to the original scheme, because the new scheme produced a larger aerodynamic resistance for turbulent heat transfer in the daytime. With respect to latent heat fluxes, the improvement was not as obvious as that attained for soil surface temperature since the soil water content in the surface layer in a semiarid area is a more important factor than surface soil temperature in controlling evaporation rate. Accordingly, it can be concluded that the new surface thermal roughness length parameterization scheme could improve the ability of the SATM to simulate bare soil surface energy budget with latent heat flux component being innegligible in semiarid areas.     

Comparison of different methods for estimating soil surface evaporation in a bare field

In this paper, three methods for estimating soil evaporation in a bare field were evaluated: evaporation ratio method (k ratio), complementary relationship and bulk equation. Micro-lysimeters were used to measure the actual evaporation for validation of the three methods. For the k ratio method, pan evaporation was used as the reference evaporation instead of the value obtained from the Penman–Monteith equation. This result is important for areas where meteorological data are unavailable. The results showed that, for daytime evaporation, the k ratio and bulk equation produced a good fit with the observation data, while the complementary relationship generated a larger deviation from the measured data. We recommend that the k ratio method and bulk equation could be used to calculate daytime soil evaporation with high accuracy when soil water content and pan evaporation data or meteorological data are available, while the complementary relationship could be used for a rough estimation when pan evaporation is available. All the methods could be applied to calculate cumulative evaporation.     

Theoretical determination of the surface energy balance and thermal regimes of bare soils

An analytical theory that determines the thermal regimes in the soil and the thermal and moisture regimes in the atmosphere for bare surfaces is derived. Both soil and atmospheric thermal properties are assumed to be power functions of depth and height, respectively. Evaporation is determined using a surface resistance to vapour flow. Fourier superposition is used to represent nonsinusoidal variations in time due to effects such as variable cloud cover. The theory is in acceptable agreement with micrometeorological measurements made at two bare soil sites of contrasting surface bulk density. It is concluded that the surface resistance model for evaporation is applicable to bare soils which remain wet at depth, particularly if their surface is loosened. The theory is used to predict the diurnal thermal regimes of saturated and dry sand, loam, and peat soils.     

Bulk Formulation of the Surface Heat Flux

An interpretive literature survey examines different approachesfor applying the bulk aerodynamic formulato predict the surface heat flux. The surface heat flux is often predicted in terms of the surface radiation temperature, which is also used to predict the upward longwave radiation and the heat flux into the soil. In models, the thermal roughness length based on the surface radiation temperature (radiometric roughness length) is often specified to be smaller than the roughness length for momentum for a number of distinct reasons. The definition of the radiometric roughness length depends on the way that the surface temperature is measured, the choice of stability functions and displacement height and inclusion of any additional resistances.Using airborne eddy correlation data collected over eight different sites including bare soil, crops and grassland and several types of forests, the radiometric roughness length is found to vary by orders of magnitude in a manner that is difficult to formulate. Alternatively, we evaluate the approach where the thermal roughness length is equated with the better behaved roughness length for momentum and the corresponding aerodynamic surface temperature is modelled in terms of the surface radiation temperature, solar radiation, and vegetation index. The influence of wind speed and soil moisture on the difference between the aerodynamic and surface radiation temperatures is also examined.     

Sensitivity study and validation of a land surface parameterization using the HAPEX-MOBILHY data set

A simple parameterization of land surface processes, amenable to the structure of a two-layer soil model, including a representation of the vegetation, has been designed for use in meteorological models. Prior to implementation in a mesoscale model, it is necessary to check the components and to verify the good working order of the parameterization as a whole. The aims of this paper then are: (i) evaluation and a sensitivity study of the various components of the model, specifying the needed accuracy for the parameters; (ii) micrometeorological validation of the model against the HAPEX-MOBILHY data set.First, we present the basic scheme. The focus is on the parameterization of surface resistance, and especially on its relationship with soil moisture.A sensitivity study is then performed through a set of one-dimensional simulations which allow a full interaction between the ground and the atmosphere. Above bare ground, it is shown that both soil texture and initial moisture greatly influence the outcome of the simulation. Latent heat flux ranges from that associated with potential evaporation through a switch-like behavior to that of dry soil. Next, the effects of transpiring vegetation canopies on the physical processes involved and the surface energy balance are examined. The sensitivity of the latent heat flux to changes in the soil and canopy parameters is emphazised; the major influence of the initial mean soil moisture and of the vegetation cover is pointed out. Finally, the evolution of the boundary layer in response to various surface conditions is studied.A validation of the land surface scheme is conducted through daily cycles during cloudless days. Simulated turbulent fluxes are successfully compared to micrometeorological measurements over a maize field at different growth stages. Over a pine forest, the correct simulation of the turbulent fluxes is obtained with an adequate parameterization of the surface resistance accounting for the atmospheric moisture deficit.     

1961-2010年青海高原蒸发皿蒸发量变化及其对水资源的影响

利用1961-2010年青海省气象观测资料,分析了青海高原近50年蒸发皿蒸发量的时空分布特征和变化趋势,并采用偏相关及主成分分析法,探讨了青海高原蒸发皿蒸发量变化的气候成因及其对水资源的影响。结果表明：近50 a来青海高原蒸发皿蒸发量呈显著下降趋势,它是热力、水分、动力因子综合作用的结果,在三类因子中,动力及水分因子对蒸发皿蒸发量的影响较大,而热力因子相对较小;区域分析表明,影响东部农业区和柴达木盆地蒸发量的主导因子是平均风速和相对湿度,三江源区为相对湿度,而唐古拉山区为气温日较差。通过分析黄河上游可能蒸散量与地表水资源的关系发现,蒸散量对地表水资源的负效应十分显著,其中夏季蒸散量对于平均流量的影响最为显著,而秋季平均流量对蒸散量的响应最为敏感。     

The effect of uncertainty in aerodynamic resistance on evaporation estimates from the combination model

Evaporation estimates from a soybean crop calculated from the combination model are insensitive to aerodynamic resistance. The insensitivity arises from a strong link between evaporation and the vapour pressure deficit of the air and bulk stomatal resistance. The sensitivity of aerodynamic resistance to errors in surface roughness and zero-plane displacement is considered. The resistance is found to be more sensitive to errors in surface roughness than to errors in zero-plane displacement. However, large errors in these have little effect on calculated evaporation. Both surface roughness and zero-plane displacement are empirically related to crop height and leaf area index. Errors incurred by ignoring bluff-body effects and atmospheric stability are small in estimating both resistance and evaporation. Evaporation can be calculated adequately from empirical estimates of surface roughness and zero-plane displacement and single-level measurements of windspeed.     

敦煌荒漠戈壁地区裸土地表反照率参数化研究

利用敦煌站观测资料,选取其中观测资料完整且连续性好的7个年份每年5～10月的地表净辐射四分量和土壤湿度资料,分析研究了敦煌荒漠戈壁地区裸土地表反照率与太阳高度角和表层土壤含水量之间的关系,结果表明:地表反照率与太阳高度角呈e指数关系,随太阳高度角的增大而减小,当太阳高度角大于40°时,地表反照率趋于稳定。表层土壤含水量的增大可导致地表反照率的减小,地表反照率与5 cm深土壤湿度呈线性关系。另外,建立了敦煌荒漠戈壁地区裸土地表反照率与太阳高度角和表层土壤含水量之间的双因子参数化公式,提出了一种更加适合该地区的地表反照率参数方案,并且选取2002年6～9月的实测资料对拟合的参数化公式进行模拟验证。本文所提出的地表反照率参数化方案能够很好地再现该地区裸土地表反照率的“U”型日变化特征,可准确地模拟出地表反照率的动态变化趋势。基于此参数化方案计算得到的地表反射辐射与实测值基本一致。     

大连市蒸发量变化特征及影响因子

采用线性倾向估计法和累积距平曲线和完全相关系数法,分析了1951—2001年大连市蒸发量变化特征及其影响因子。结果表明：大连市年蒸发量呈增加趋势,其中夏季蒸发量的增加趋势最为明显,其次为春季,秋季和冬季蒸发量增加趋势不显著;年蒸发量的增加主要来自夏季的贡献。大连市年及四季蒸发量与日照时数、平均地面温度、平均气温日较差和平均风速总体上呈正相关,与平均相对湿度呈负相关。平均相对湿度减小和平均地面温度上升是大连市蒸发量增加的主要原因。