A Quick Report on a Dynamical Downscaling Simulation over China Using the Nested Model

This paper describes a dynamical downscaling simulation over China using the nested model system, which consists of the modified Weather Research and Forecasting Model (WRF) nested with the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM). Results show that dynamical downscaling is of great value in improving the model simulation of regional climatic characteristics. WRF simulates regional detailed temperature features better than CAM. With the spatial correlation coefficient between the observation and the simulation increasing from 0.54 for CAM to 0.79 for WRF, the improvement in precipitation simulation is more perceptible with WRF. Furthermore, the WRF simulation corrects the spatial bias of the precipitation in the CAM simulation.     

降尺度方法在东亚气候预测中的应用

东亚气候变异十分复杂,全球动力预测系统对该地气候异常的预测能力偏低,如何进一步提高东亚地区气候异常的预测水平是一个非常重要的科学和现实需求问题。为此,近些年一系列的动力和统计降尺度方法得以发展。本文主要回顾了这些降尺度方法在东亚气候预测研究和实时预测中的应用。首先,文中简要介绍了我国目前应用于实时预测的全球动力预测系统及其性能,这是开展降尺度的科学和技术基础;在此基础上,从区域模式物理过程参数化方案的评估与遴选、区域模式在东亚气候预测中的应用两个方面,对于动力降尺度方法的发展和应用做了回顾;在统计降尺度的综述中,本文主要关注了东亚夏季汛期和冬季气候异常的预测,特别是针对东亚冬季气候异常,本文中提出了新的高效的统计与动力相结合的预测方法。最后,展望了短期气候预测需要进一步深入研究的科学和技术问题。     

Dynamical Downscaling of the Arctic Climate with a Focus on Polar Cyclone Climatology

We present a dynamical downscaling of the Arctic climatology using a high-resolution implementation of the Polar Weather Research and Forecasting, version 3.6 (WRF3.6) model, with a focus on Arctic cyclone activity. The study period is 1979–2004 and the driving fields are data from the Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model, version 2, with an Earth System component (HadGEM2-ES) simulations. We show that the results from the Polar WRF model provide significantly improved simulations of the frequency, intensity, and size of cyclones compared with the HadGEM2-ES simulations. Polar WRF reproduces the intensity of winter cyclones found in ERA-Interim, the global atmospheric reanalysis produced by the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), and suggests that the average minimum central pressure of the cyclones is about 10?hPa lower than that derived from HadGEM2-ES simulations. Although both models underestimate the frequency of summer Arctic cyclones, Polar WRF simulations suggest there are 10.5% more cyclones per month than do HadGEM2-ES results. Overall, the Polar WRF model captures more intense and smaller cyclones than are obtained in HadGEM2-ES results, in better agreement with the ERA-Interim reanalysis data. Our results also show that the improved simulations of Arctic synoptic weather systems contribute to better simulations of atmospheric surface fields. The Polar WRF model is better able to simulate both the spatial patterns and magnitudes of the ERA-Interim reanalysis data than HadGEM2-ES is; in particular, the latter overestimates the absorbed solar radiation in the Arctic basin by as much as 30?W?m^?2 and underestimates longwave radiation by about 10?W?m^?2 in summer. Our results suggest that the improved simulations of longwave and solar radiation are partly associated with a better simulation of cloud liquid water content in the Polar WRF model, which is linked to improvements in the simulation of cyclone frequency and intensity and the resulting transient eddy transports of heat and water vapour.     

区域风能资源评价分析的动力降尺度研究

不同于以往的统计风能评估方法,本研究将动力降尺度方法应用到江苏省的风能评价分析中。利用NCEP/NCAR再分析资料与江苏省65个地面气象观测站1971～2000年的观测资料,建立了动力降尺度区域气候模式MM5V3的初始场和边界条件,用较高分辨率（水平分辨率为5 km）评估了江苏省60 m高度的风能分布,分析了动力降尺度方法在区域风能资源评估中的有效应用。结果表明,江苏省风能资源由东部沿海向西部内陆递减,以西连岛为代表的东部沿海风能资源最丰富,其次为长江三角洲地区,太湖、洪泽湖及高邮湖地区的风能资源也比较丰富,徐州市与南京市的风能资源最贫乏。分析表明,动力降尺度方法能够用较高分辨率模拟局地环流和地面风的主要分布特征,可以作为区域风能资源评价分析的有效手段。     

Recent Near-surface Temperature Trends in the Antarctic Peninsula from Observed,Reanalysis and Regional Climate Model Data

This study investigates the recent near-surface temperature trends over the Antarctic Peninsula.We make use of available surface observations,ECMWF’s ERA5 and its predecessor ERA-Interim,as well as numerical simulations,allowing us to contrast different data sources.We use hindcast simulations performed with Polar-WRF over the Antarctic Peninsula on a nested domain configuration at 45 km(PWRF-45)and 15 km(PWRF-15)spatial resolutions for the period 1991?2015.In addition,we include hindcast simulations of KNMI-RACMO21P obtained from the CORDEX-Antarctica domain(~50 km)for further comparisons.Results show that there is a marked windward warming trend except during summer.This windward warming trend is particularly notable in the autumn season and likely to be associated with the recent deepening of the Amundsen/Bellingshausen Sea low and warm advection towards the Antarctic Peninsula.On the other hand,an overall summer cooling is characterized by the strengthening of the Weddell Sea low as well as an anticyclonic trend over the Amundsen Sea accompanied by northward winds.The persistent cooling trend observed at the Larsen Ice Shelf station is not captured by ERA-Interim,whereas hindcast simulations indicate that there is a clear pattern of windward warming and leeward cooling.Furthermore,larger temporal correlations and lower differences exhibited by PWRF-15 illustrate the existence of the added value in the higher spatial resolution simulation.     

成都区域中心动力气候模式产品降尺度应用业务系统

利用动力气候模式(T63)产品进行降尺度解释应用,是目前以及未来开展气候预测的主要手段。本系统基于国家气候中心下发的气候模式产品、NCEP/NCAR 500 hPa高度场、西南区域84个代表站温度降水历年资料,采用动力统计相结合的技术方法,建立了“成都区域气象中心动力气候模式解释应用系统”,该系统以统计降尺度方法在西南区短期气候预测中的业务化应用为目的,实现了统计方法与动力模式相结合的业务化,经过5年业务回报试验和近2年的预测业务运行,结果表明:该系统对西南区域的月尺度温度和降水有较好的预报能力,已成为西南区域气候中心日常业务的主要参考依据。本文主要介绍该系统平台的各子系统性能及采用的技术方法。     

成都区域中心动力气候模式产品降尺度应用业务系统

利用动力气候模式（T63）产品进行降尺度解释应用,是目前以及未来开展气候预测的主要手段。本系统基于国家气候中心下发的气候模式产品、NCEP／NCAR500hPa高度场、西南区域84个代表站温度降水历年资料,采用动力统计相结合的技术方法,建立了“成都区域气象中心动力气候模式解释应用系统”,该系统以统计降尺度方法在西南区短期气候预测中的业务化应用为目的,实现了统计方法与动力模式相结合的业务化,经过5年业务回报试验和近2年的预测业务运行,结果表明：该系统对西南区域的月尺度温度和降水有较好的预报能力,已成为西南区域气候中心日常业务的主要参考依据。本文主要介绍该系统平台的各子系统性能及采用的技术方法。     

基于DERF的SD方法预测月降水和极端降水日数

针对动力气候模式对区域或更小空间尺度内的日降水预测技巧偏低的问题,应用最优子集回归 (OSR) 方法对国家气候中心业务化的月动力气候模式 (DERF) 输出的高度场、风场和海平面气压场进行降尺度处理用于降水预测,旨在提高预测准确率。1982—2006年交叉检验结果表明：OSR方法能显著提高降水预测技巧,其中11~40 d改善效果最为显著。在此基础上,应用一步法和两步法两种统计降尺度方法预测极端降水日数,交叉检验结果表明:两种方法均优于随机预测,冬季两步法预测技巧略高于一步法,夏季一步法略优于两步法。综合认为OSR,OSR结合随机天气发生器 (WG) 两种统计降尺度方法对月尺度降水或极端降水日数的预测均具有较高的技巧,可作为短期气候预测的重要参考信息。     

华东地区极端降水动力降尺度模拟及未来预估

利用CMIP5（Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 5）数据集中的全球模式IPSL-CM5A-LR及其嵌套的区域气候模式WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）,分别评估了模式对1981~2000中国华东区域极端降水指标的模拟能力,并讨论了RCP8.5排放情景下21世纪中期（2041~2060年）中国华东极端降水指标的变化特征。相比驱动场全球气候模式,WRF模式更好地再现了各个极端指数空间分布及各子区域降水年周期变化。在模拟区域气候特点方面,WRF模拟结果有所改进,并在弥补全球模式对小雨日过多模拟的缺陷起到了明显的作用。21世纪中期,华东区域的降水将呈现明显的极端化趋势。WRF模拟结果显示年总降雨量、年大雨日数、平均日降雨强度在华东大部分区域的增幅在20%以上;年极端降雨天数、连续5 d最大降水量的增幅在华东北部部分区域分别超过了50%和35%,同时最长续干旱日在华东区域全面增加;且变化显著的格点主要位于增加幅度较大的区域。未来华东区域会出现强降水事件和干旱事件同时增加的情况,降水呈现明显的极端化趋势,且华东北部极端化强于华东南部。     

Dynamical Downscaling of the Twentieth Century Reanalysis for China:Climatic Means during 1981–2010

This study presents a dynamically downscaled climatology over East Asia using the non-hydrostatic Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model, forced by the Twentieth Century Reanalysis(20CR-v2). The whole experiment is a 111-year(1900–2010) continuous run at 50 km horizontal resolution. Comparisons of climatic means and seasonal cycles among observations, 20CR-v2, and WRF results during the last 30 years(1981–2010) in China are presented, with a focus on surface air temperature and precipitation in both summer and winter. The WRF results reproduce the main features of surface air temperature in the two seasons in China, and outperform 20CR-v2 in regional details due to topographic forcing. Summer surface air temperature biases are reduced by as much as 1°C–2°C. For precipitation, the simulation results reproduce the decreasing pattern from Southeast to Northwest China in winter. For summer rainfall, the WRF simulation results reproduce the correct magnitude and position of heavy rainfall around the southeastern coastal area, and are better than 20CR-v2. One of the significant improvements is that an unrealistic center of summer precipitation in Southeast China present in 20CR-v2 is eliminated. However, the simulated results underestimate winter surface air temperature in northern China and winter rainfall in some regions in southeastern China. The mean seasonal cycles of surface air temperature and precipitation are captured well over most of sub-regions by the WRF model.     

中国年降水气候振动的非线性动力学特征

从观测资料出发,利用反演方法,获得了描述我国17个站年降水气候振动的二阶非线性动力学方程组中的系数,并在无外源强迫的情况下对该非线性动力学方程组作了定性的分析,对17个站的年降水气候振动进行气候模拟试验。结果表明:我国大部分地区的年降水气候振动存在弱的非线性振动特征,17个站的年降水气候振动都可以看作是一个正阻尼的动力系统,在运动变化过程中,自身能量的变化dEdt<0,17个站年降水气候振动的固有频率的变化范围为0.6≤ω0≤1.417,其固有周期的变化范围为10.4≥T≥4.4年。从空间分布特征上可以看到,其固有周期的长短分布有明显的东西向特征。在17个站中,兰州、成都、重庆、南宁、福州、上海、温州地区的年降水气候振动是一个类似于具有渐软弹簧特性的非线性动力系统,而昆明、长春、哈尔滨、北京、广州、西安、厦门、长沙、南京、杭州地区的年降水气候振动是一个类似于具有渐硬弹簧特性的非线性动力系统,从其空间分布特征上看也有东西向特征。全国17个站年降水气候振动的动力系统都存在一个稳定的焦点,在无外源强迫作用时,各站的年降水气候振动将逐渐趋向于各自的稳定的焦点,但都不存在极限环。在仅考虑降水自身振动的情况下,利用我们反演得到的非线性动力学方程对年降水气候振动做模拟,位于内陆地区的模拟情况可以通过显著性水平检验,而靠近海洋的地区模拟效果没有内陆好。这一结果说明在降水气候振动中,靠近海洋地区的外源强迫影响作用比位于内陆地区大。     

一种分离时间尺度的统计降尺度模型的建立和应用——以华北汛期降水为例

针对预报量变化中存在受不同物理因子控制的不同时间尺度变率特征, 本文提出了分离时间尺度的统计降尺度模型。应用滤波方法, 将不同尺度的变率分量分开, 在各自对应的时间尺度上利用不同的大尺度气候因子分别建立降尺度模型。华北汛期 (7～8月) 降水具有年际变率和年代际变率, 本文以华北汛期降水为例利用分离时间尺度的统计降尺度模型进行预测研究。采用的预报因子来自海平面气压场、 500 hPa位势高度场、 850 hPa经向风场和海表温度场以及一些已知的大尺度气候指数。利用基于交叉检验的逐步回归法建立模型。结果表明, 年际尺度上, 华北汛期降水与前期6月赤道中东太平洋海温以及同期中国东部的低层经向风密切相关; 年代际尺度上, 在东印度洋—西太平洋暖池海温的作用下, 华北降水与前期6月西南印度洋海平面气压有同步变化关系。年际模型和年代际模型的结果相加得到对总降水量的降尺度结果。1991～2008年的独立检验中, 模型估计的降水和观测降水的相关系数是0.82, 平均均方根误差是14.8%。结合模式的回报资料, 利用降尺度模型对1991～2001年的华北汛期降水进行回报试验。相比于模式直接预测的降水, 降尺度模型预测的结果有明显改进。改进了模式预测中年际变率过小的问题, 与观测降水的相关系数由0.12提高到0.45。     

降尺度方法对中国未来两种情景下降水变化预估

利用1951-2000年中国160个气象站的降水资料和美国GFDL-CM2.1模式输出的500 hPa位势高度资料,建立了一个统计降尺度模型,并利用该模型对中国2011-2100年的降水进行了降尺度预估,分析了CO2浓度变化对中国未来降水变化的可能影响.结果表明,在未来A1B和A2情景下,中国各气候区各季节的降水都发生了变化,两种情景下的降水变化格局和变化幅度非常相似,但由于A2情景下的2011-2100年平均CO2浓度比A1B情景高,故其降水变化的幅度更为剧烈.CO2浓度的增加是中国未来降水变化的主要贡献因子,但它不会从根本上改变中国未来降水的分布格局,只会增强降水本身的自然变化幅度,是降水自然变率的放大器,且放大的幅度远远大于自然变率本身.CO2浓度变化引起的降水变化一般比CO2浓度变化滞后20～30年.CO2浓度增加引起的气温升高会导致中国大部分地区500 hPa等压面的抬升和环流形势的改变,从而对未来降水产生影响.     

Evaluation of Linear and Non-Linear Downscaling Methods in Terms of Daily Variability and Climate Indices: Surface Temperature in Southern Ontario and Quebec,Canada

We downscaled atmospheric reanalysis data using linear regression and Bayesian neural network (BNN) ensembles to obtain daily maximum and minimum temperatures at ten weather stations in southern Quebec and Ontario, Canada. Performance of the linear and non-linear downscaling models was evaluated using four different sets of predictors, not only in terms of their ability to reproduce the magnitude of day-to-day variability (i.e., “weather,” mean absolute error between the daily values of the predictand(s) and the downscaled data) but also in terms of their ability to reproduce longer time scale variability (i.e., “climate,” indices of agreement between the predictand's observed annual climate indices and the corresponding downscaled values). The climate indices used were the 90th percentile of the daily maximum temperature, 10th percentile of the daily minimum temperature, number of frost days, heat wave duration, growing season length, and intra-annual temperature range.

Our results show that the non-linear models usually outperform their linear counterparts in the magnitude of daily variability and, to a greater extent, in annual climate variability. In particular, the best model simulating weather and climate was a BNN ensemble using stepwise selection from 20 reanalysis predictors, followed by a BNN ensemble using the three leading principal components from the aforementioned predictors. Finally, we showed that, on average, the first three indices presented higher skills than the growing season length, number of frost days, and the heat wave duration.     

巴黎协定——全球气候治理的新起点

巴黎气候变化大会完成了历时4年的德班平台谈判进程,达成了以《巴黎协定》（简称《协定》）为核心的一系列决定。《协定》确立了一种全缔约方参与,以“自主贡献+审评”为中心,全面涉及减缓、适应及其支持的全球应对气候变化新模式。这一模式在继承《公约》原则的基础上,明确了发达国家和发展中国家各自的责任,通过国家自主贡献的方式充分动员所有缔约方采取应对气候变化行动,促进可持续发展。《协定》还鼓励除缔约方外的其他主体积极参与应对气候变化进程,鼓励市场和非市场机制的加入,动员资金流向绿色低碳领域。在制度安排上,《协定》体现了激励、透明、非对抗、非惩罚性的特点。《协定》的达成标志着全球气候治理进入了新的发展阶段,传递出全球推动实现绿色低碳、气候适应型和可持续发展的强有力信号。然而由于《协定》全面平衡了各方的利益,在未来的遵约细节和实施落实方面将会有更多的难题,如果处理不当,将可能会损害发展中国家的利益,尤其是发展中大国。     

Comparison of a very-fine-resolution GCM with RCM dynamical downscaling in simulating climate in China

Regional climate simulation can generally be improved by using an RCM nested within a coarser-resolution GCM. However, whether or not it can also be improved by the direct use of a state-of-the-art GCM with very fine resolution, close to that of an RCM, and, if so, which is the better approach, are open questions. These questions are important for understanding and using these two kinds of simulation approaches, but have not yet been investigated. Accordingly, the present reported work compared simulation results over China from a very-fine-resolution GCM (VFRGCM) and from RCM dynamical downscaling. The results showed that: (1) The VFRGCM reproduces the climatologies and trends of both air temperature and precipitation, as well as inter-monthly variations of air temperature in terms of spatial pattern and amount, closer to observations than the coarse-resolution version of the GCM. This is not the case, however, for the inter-monthly variations of precipitation. (2) The VFRGCM captures the climatology, trend, and inter-monthly variation of air temperature, as well as the trend in precipitation, more reasonably than the RCM dynamical downscaling method. (3) The RCM dynamical downscaling method performs better than the VFRGCM in terms of the climatology and inter-monthly variation of precipitation. Overall, the results suggest that VFRGCMs possess great potential with regard to their application in climate simulation in the future, and the RCM dynamical downscaling method is still dominant in terms of regional precipitation simulation.     

A global ocean reanalysis product in the China Ocean Reanalysis (CORA) project

The first version of a global ocean reanalysis over multiple decades (1979–2008) has been completed by the National Marine Data and Information Service within the China Ocean Reanalysis (CORA) project. The global ocean model employed is based upon the ocean general circulation model of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A sequential data assimilation scheme within the framework of 3D variational (3DVar) analysis, called multi-grid 3DVar, is implemented in 3D space for retrieving multiple-scale observational information. Assimilated oceanic observations include sea level anomalies (SLAs) from multi-altimeters, sea surface temperatures (SSTs) from remote sensing satellites, and in-situ temperature/salinity profiles. Evaluation showed that compared to the model simulation, the annual mean heat content of the global reanalysis is significantly approaching that of World Ocean Atlas 2009 (WOA09) data. The quality of the global temperature climatology was found to be comparable with the product of Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA), and the major ENSO events were reconstructed. The global and Atlantic meridional overturning circulations showed some similarity as SODA, although significant differences were found to exist. The analysis of temperature and salinity in the current version has relatively larger errors at high latitudes and improvements are ongoing in an updated version. CORA was found to provide a simulation of the subsurface current in the equatorial Pacific with a correlation coefficient beyond about 0.6 compared with the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean (TAO) mooring data. The mean difference of SLAs between altimetry data and CORA was less than 0.1 m in most years.     

Dynamical Downscaling of Temperature and Precipitation Extremes in China under Current and Future Climates

Climate changes over China from the present (1996–2005) to the future (2046–2055) under Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 (RCP4.5) and Representative Concentration Pathways 8.5 (RCP8.5) scenarios are projected using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, version 3.7.1. The WRF model was driven by the Global 6-Hourly Bias-corrected Coupled Model Intercomparison Project, Phase 5 (CMIP5), Community Earth System Model dataset over China with a resolution of 30?km. The results demonstrate that WRF downscaling generally simulates more reliable spatial distributions of surface air temperature and precipitation in China with higher spatial pattern correlations and closer in magnitude to the Community Climate System Model, version 4.0, simulation results, especially near mountain ranges. The WRF projections for temperature and precipitation for the future under the two emission scenarios are compared with the present simulation. Generally stronger warming, both in mean temperature and extreme statistics, is produced by WRF-RCP8.5 than by WRF-RCP4.5. The projections for precipitation changes are more varied with season and region for both scenarios.     

重庆市动力气候模式产品降尺度应用检验评估分析

应用多种动力气候模式降尺度解释应用技术,经过2004~2008年的回算检验和2009年以来的业务应用,结果表明其对重庆市区域的月平均气温和降水量有较好的预测能力,MOS和PP两大类方法中,分别用逐步回归、相似离度和最短距离相似等建模方法,用车比雪夫多项式,涡度,动态区域,EOF和R方程等5种不同构建因子方案得出的预测结果Ps评分(中国气象局预测业务定量评分标准)显示,重庆市动力气候模式解释应用方法的预测能力超过了中国气象局的目标考核要求(降水≥60%,温度≥65%)。月降水量预测最佳方案是PP-回归-涡度和PP-回归-区域,月气温预测最佳方案是MOS-回归-涡度和MOS-回归-车氏。降水和气温预测效果最好月和最差月平均Ps评分差值分别达到14.5%和21.8%,表明预测效果存在明显的月际差异。由2006年3月个例分析可见,降尺度解释应用技术对月尺度气温降水正负距平空间分布形态有较好的预测能力。     

全球气候变化对中国森林生态系统的影响

人类活动所引起的温室效应及由此造成的全球气候变化和对全球生态环境的影响正引起人们越来越多的重视.作为全球陆地生态系统一个重要组分,中国的森林生态系统对未来全球气候变化的响应更是人们关注的重点.作者系统地总结了全球气候变化对中国森林生态系统分布、生态系统生产力、森林树种以及森林土壤的影响,指出了现阶段该领域研究中存在的一些问题,并对今后需要加强的一些核心问题与研究重点作了展望.