1998年夏季HUBEX/GAME期间热量和水汽收支(英)

By using the high-resolution GAME reanalysis data, the heat and moisture budgets during the period of HUBEX/GAME in the summer of 1998 are calculated for exploring the thermodynamic features of Meiyu over the Changjiang-Huaihe (CH) valley. During the CH Meiyu period, an intensive vertically-integrated heat source and moisture sink are predominant over the heavy rainfall area of the CH valley, accompanied by strong upward motion at 500 hPa. The heat and moisture budgets show that the main diabatic heating component is condensation latent heat released by rainfall. As residual terms, the evaporation and sensible heating are relatively small. Based on the vertical distribution of the heat source and moisture sink, the nature of the rainfall is mixed, in which the convective rainfall is dominant with a considerable percentage of continuous stratiform rainfall. There are similar time evolutions of the main physical parameters(〈Q1〉,〈Q2〉,and vertical motion ω at 500 hPa).The time variations of〈Q1〉and〈Q2〉are in phase with those of -ω500, and have their main peaks within the CH Meiyu period. This shows the influence of the heat source on the dynamic structure of the atmosphere. The wavelet analyses of those time series display similar multiple timescale characteristics. During the CH Meiyu period, both the synoptic scale(～6 days) and mesoscale (～2 days and ～12 hours) increase obviously and cause heavy rainfall as well as the appearances of the maxima of the main physical parameters. Among them, the mesoscale systems are the main factors.     

Turbulent Kinetic Energy Dissipation in the Surface Layer

We estimated the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) dissipation rate for thirty-two 1-h intervals of unstable stratification covering the stability range 0.12 ≤ −z/L ≤ 43 (z/L is the ratio of instrument height to the Obukhov length), by fitting Kolmogorov’s inertial subrange spectrum to streamwise spectra observed over a desert flat. Estimated values are compatible with the existence of local equilibrium, in that the TKE dissipation rate approximately equalled the sum of shear and buoyant production rates. Only in the neutral limit was the turbulent transport term in the TKE budget measured to be small.     

Chemical ionisation mass spectrometer for measurements of OH and Peroxy radical concentrations in moderately polluted atmospheres

A new version of an atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometer has been developed for ground based in situ atmospheric measurements of OH and total peroxy (HO₂ + organic peroxy) radicals. Based on the previously developed principle of chemical conversion of OH radicals to H₂SO₄ in reaction with SO₂ and detection of H₂SO₄ using an ion molecule reaction with NO₃^─, the new instrument is equipped with a turbulent chemical conversion reactor allowing for measurements in moderately polluted atmosphere at NO concentrations up to several ppb. Unlike other similar devices, where the primary NO₃^─ ions are produced using radioactive ion sources, the new instrument is equipped with a specially developed corona discharge ion source. According to laboratory measurements, the overall accuracy and detection limits are estimated to be, respectively, 25% and 2 × 10⁵ molecule cm^-3 for OH and 30% and 1 × 10⁵ molecule cm^-3 for HO₂ at 10 min integration times. The detection limit for measurements of OH radicals under polluted conditions is 5 × 10⁵ molecules cm^-3 at 10 min integration times. Examples of ambient air measurements during a field campaign near Paris in July 2007 are presented demonstrating the capability of the new instrument, although with reduced performance due to the employment of non isotopic SO₂.     

Determination of boundary-layer parameters using wind profiler/RASS and sodar/RASS in the frame of the LITFASS project

Summary ?Progress in technology as well as signal processing has promoted Wind Profiler Radar (WPR) or sodar with RASS additions to become standard tools in profiling of the atmospheric boundary layer. Apart from these instruments’ basic abilities in profiling mean winds and temperature, this paper will give an emphasis on the profiling of ABL height as well as the turbulent fluxes of sensible heat and momentum both, with respect to methods as well as with respect to realization. The special focus will thereby be laid on the demands for vertical profiling, which were defined within the LITFASS-project of the German Meteorological Service. In the frame of this project, some special measuring campaigns have been performed where remote-sensing systems were used to assess their abilities in profiling ABL parameters. On the base of some case studies from these campaigns comparisons are shown, where results from sodar/RASS and WPR/RASS measurements are compared to measurements from airborne sensor systems and results from numerical models. Regarding turbulent heat fluxes, we found excellent agreement for remotely-sensed flux profiles from WPR/RASS with both, numerical models and airborne in-situ measurements. However, as the inherent errors of the remotely-sensed fluxes are in the order of ± 20 ⋯ 30 W/m² typically, current signal processing does not allow to interpret small-scale vertical structures in the profiles with respect to surface inhomogeneities yet. Received June 16, 2001; revised February 20, 2002; accepted May 30, 2002     

Numerical modeling of the nocturnal urban boundary layer

A numerical case study with a second-order turbulence closure model is proposed to study the role of urban canopy layer (UCL) for the formation of the nocturnal urban boundary layer (UBL). The turbulent diffusion coefficient was determined from an algebraic stress model. The concept of urban building surface area density is proposed to represent the UCL. Calculated results were also compared with field observation data. The height of the elevated inversion above an urban center was simulated and found to be approximately twice the average building height. The turbulent kinetic energy k, energy dissipation rate , and turbulence intensities u ² and w ² increase rapidly at the upwind edge of the urban area. The Reynolds stress uw displayed a nearly uniform profile inside the UBL, and the vertical sensible heat flux w had a negative value at the inversion base height. This indicates that the downward transport of sensible heat from the inversion base may play an important role in the formation of the nocturnal UBL.     

Numerical Investigations of Mean Winds Within Canopies of Regularly Arrayed Cubical Buildings Under Neutral Stability Conditions

Recently, several attempts have been made to model the wind velocity in an urban canopy in order to accurately predict the mixing and transport of momentum, heat, and pollutants within and above the canopy on an urban scale. For this purpose, unverified assumptions made by Macdonald (Boundary-Layer Meteorol 97:25–45, 2000) to develop a model for the profile of the mean wind velocity within an urban canopy have been used. In the present study, in order to provide foundations for improving the urban canopy models, the properties of the spatially-averaged mean quantities used to make these assumptions have been investigated by performing large-eddy simulations (LES) of the airflow around square and staggered arrays of cubical blocks with the following plan area densities: λ _p = 0.05, 0.11, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25, and 0.33. The LES results confirm that the discrepancy between the spatial average of wind velocity and Macdonald’s five-point average of wind velocity can be large in both types of arrays for large λ _p . It is also confirmed that Prandtl’s mixing length varies significantly with height within the canopy, contrary to Macdonald’s assumption for both types of arrays and for both small and large λ _p . On the other hand, in accordance with Macdonald’s assumption, the sectional drag coefficient is found to be almost constant with height except in the case of staggered arrays with high λ _p .     

Evaluation of the Turbulent Kinetic Energy Dissipation Rate Inside Canopies by Zero- and Level-Crossing Density Methods

Inferring the vertical variation of the mean turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate (ε) inside dense canopies remains a basic research problem to be confronted. Using detailed laser Doppler anemometry (LDA) measurements collected within a densely arrayed rod canopy, traditional and newly proposed methods to infer ε profiles are compared. The traditional methods for estimating ε at a given layer include isotropic relationships applied to the viscous dissipation scales that are resolved by LDA measurements, higher order structure function methods, and residuals of the turbulent kinetic energy budget in which production and transport terms are all independently inferred. The newly proposed method extends earlier approaches based on zero-crossing statistics, which were shown to be promising in a number of laboratory flows. The extension to account for an arbitrary threshold (hereafter referred to as the level-crossing method) instead of zero-crossing minimizes the effects of instrument noise on the inferred ε. While none of the ε methods employed here can be titled as ‘measured’, these methods differ in their underlying assumptions and simplifications. Above the canopy, where a balance between production and dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy is expected, the agreement among all the methods is reasonably good. In the lower-to-middle layers of the canopy, all the methods agree except for those based on a structure-function inference of ε. This departure can be attributed to the lack of a well-defined inertial subrange in these layers. In the upper canopy layers, the disagreements between the methods are largest. Even the higher order structure-function methods disagree with each other when ε is inferred from third- and fifth-order moments. However, for all layers within the canopy, the proposed zero- and threshold-crossing methods agree well with estimates of ε derived from the isotropic relationship applied to the viscous dissipation range. Finally, the advantages of introducing thresholds to minimize two types of instrument noises, additive and multiplicative, are briefly discussed.     

Instrumentation for measuring static pressure fluctuations within the atmospheric boundary layer

An instrument is described which is capable of making Eulerian measurements of microscale fluctuations in the static pressure when it is placed within the turbulent flow of the lower atmospheric boundary layer. The sampling ports are located on an accurately shaped streamlined circular disc; dynamic pressure changes at these ports, due to the flow fluctuations, are small when compared to the static pressure changes. Wind tunnel tests and anin situ test show that the instrument can sample the amplitudes and phases of fluctuations in the static pressure to better than ± 20% and to about ± 5 °, respectively.     

Consistent Two-Equation Closure Modelling for Atmospheric Research: Buoyancy and Vegetation Implementations

A self-consistent two-equation closure treating buoyancy and plant drag effects has been developed, through consideration of the behaviour of the supplementary equation for the length-scale-determining variable in homogeneous turbulent flow. Being consistent with the canonical flow regimes of grid turbulence and wall-bounded flow, the closure is also valid for homogeneous shear flows commonly observed inside tall vegetative canopies and in non-neutral atmospheric conditions. Here we examine the most often used two-equation models, namely and E − ω (where is the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy, E, and is the specific dissipation), comparing the suggested buoyancy-modified closure against Monin–Obukhov similarity theory. Assessment of the closure implementing both buoyancy and plant drag together has been done, comparing the results of the two models against each other. It has been found that the E − ω model gives a better reproduction of complex atmospheric boundary-layer flows, including less sensitivity to numerical artefacts, than does the model. Re-derivation of the equation from the ω equation, however, leads to the model implementation that produces results identical to the E − ω model. Overall, numerical results show that the closure performs well, opening new possibilities for application of such models to tasks related to the atmospheric boundary layer—where it is important to adequately account for the influences of both vegetation and atmospheric stability.     

Scintillometer Intercomparison Study—Continued

An earlier study by one of the authors reported significant differences of up to 21% in linear regression slopes between six Kipp & Zonen large-aperture scintillometers. In this note, the consistency of this increasingly popular instrument for measuring sensible heat fluxes at the km scale was quantified by comparing measurements from four Scintec boundary-layer scintillometers and one large-aperture scintillometer over nearly identical transects. The Kipp & Zonen instrument’s sensible heat fluxes were more than 20% larger than those from the Scintec instruments, while the difference in regression slopes amongst the Scintec instruments was 3% or less.     

Dispersion of a Point-Source Release of a Passive Scalar Through an Urban-Like Array for Different Wind Directions

The dispersion of a point-source release of a passive scalar in a regular array of cubical, urban-like, obstacles is investigated by means of direct numerical simulations. The simulations are conducted under conditions of neutral stability and fully rough turbulent flow, at a roughness Reynolds number of Re _τ  = 500. The Navier–Stokes and scalar equations are integrated assuming a constant rate release from a point source close to the ground within the array. We focus on short-range dispersion, when most of the material is still within the building canopy. Mean and fluctuating concentrations are computed for three different pressure gradient directions (0°, 30°, 45°). The results agree well with available experimental data measured in a water channel for a flow angle of 0°. Profiles of mean concentration and the three-dimensional structure of the dispersion pattern are compared for the different forcing angles. A number of processes affecting the plume structure are identified and discussed, including: (i) advection or channelling of scalar down ‘streets’, (ii) lateral dispersion by turbulent fluctuations and topological dispersion induced by dividing streamlines around buildings, (iii) skewing of the plume due to flow turning with height, (iv) detrainment by turbulent dispersion or mean recirculation, (v) entrainment and release of scalar in building wakes, giving rise to ‘secondary sources’, (vi) plume meandering due to unsteady turbulent fluctuations. Finally, results on relative concentration fluctuations are presented and compared with the literature for point source dispersion over flat terrain and urban arrays.     

Variance Method to Determine Turbulent Fluxes of Momentum And Sensible Heat in The Stable Atmospheric Surface Layer

Evidence is presented that in the stable atmospheric surface layer turbulent fluxes of heat and momentum can be determined from the standard deviations of longitudinal wind velocity and temperature, σ _u and σ _T respectively, measured at a single level. An attractive aspect of this method is that it yields fluxes from measurements that can be obtained with two-dimensional sonic anemometers. These instruments are increasingly being used at official weather stations, where they replace the standard cup anemometer–wind vane system. With methods such as the one described in this note, a widespread, good quality, flux network can be established, which would greatly benefit the modelling community. It is shown that a ‘variance’ dimensionless height (ζ _σ) defined from σ _u and σ _T is highly related to the ‘conventional’ dimensionless stability parameter ζ=z/L, where z is height and L is the Obukhov length. Empirical functions for ζ _σ are proposed that allow direct calculation of heat and momentum fluxes from σ _u and σ _T. The method performs fairly well also during a night of intermittent turbulence.     

Numerical simulations of pollutant dispersion in an idealized urban area,for different meteorological conditions

In order to estimate the impacts of buildings on air pollution dispersion, numerical simulations are performed over an idealized urban area, modelled as regular rows of large rectangular obstacles. The simulations are evaluated with the results of the Mock Urban Setting Test (MUST), which is a near full-scale experiment conducted in Utah’s West Desert area: it consists of releases of a neutral gas in a field of regularly spaced shipping containers. The numerical simulations are performed with the model Mercure_Saturne, which is a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics code adapted to atmospheric flow and dispersion simulations. It resolves complex geometries and uses, in this study, a k–∈ closure for the turbulence model. Sensitivity studies focus on how to prescribe the inflow conditions for turbulent kinetic energy. Furthermore, different sets of coefficients available in the literature for the k–∈ closure model are tested. Twenty MUST trials with different meteorological conditions are simulated and detailed analyses are performed for both the dynamical variables and average concentration. Our results show overall good agreement according to statistical comparison parameters, with a fraction of predictions for average concentration within a factor of two of observations of 67.1%. The set of simulations offers several inflow wind directions and allows us to emphasize the impact of elongated buildings, which create a deflection of the plume centerline relative to the upstream wind direction.     

Methodological Development of the Conditional Sampling Method. Part II: Quality Control Criteria of Relaxed Eddy Accumulation Flux Measurements

Determination of biosphere–atmosphere exchanges requires accurate quantification of the turbulent fluxes of energy and of a wide variety of trace gases. Relaxed Eddy Accumulation (REA) is a method that has received increasing attention in recent years, because it does not require any rapid sensor for the scalar measurements as the Eddy Correlation method (EC) does. As in all micrometeorological studies, REA measurements in the atmospheric surface layer are valid under some restrictive conditions so as to be representative of a specific ecosystem. These conditions are the homogeneity of the underlying surface, stationary and horizontally homogeneous turbulence. For most experiments these conditions are not fully satisfied. Data uncertainties can also be related to not fulfilling the method principles or to the technical characteristics of the REA system itself. In order to assess REA measurement quality, a methodological approach of data analysis is developed in this study. This methodological analysis is based on the establishment of criteria for data quality control. A set of them, deduced from the mean and turbulent flow, are called ‘Dynamic criteria’ and are designated to control the stationarity and homogeneity of the w function and the validation of Taylor’s hypothesis. A second set (‘REA operational criteria’) is designed to check the sampling process and, more precisely, the homogeneity of the negative and positive selection process throughout the sampling period. A third set of criteria (‘Chemical scalar criteria’) concerns the scalar measurements. Results of the criteria application to data measured at two different experimental sites are also presented. Cut-off limits of criteria are defined based on their statistical distribution and shown to be specific for each site. Strictness of each criterion, defined by the percentage of flagged samples, is analysed in conjunction with the meteorological conditions and atmospheric stability. It is found that flagged samples mainly correspond to neutral and stable nocturnal conditions. During daytime, nearly free convection conditions can also yield poor quality data.     

Local Imbalance of Turbulent Kinetic Energy in the Surface Layer

We utilize experimental data collected in 2002 over an open field in Hanford, Washington, USA, to investigate the turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) budget in the atmospheric surface layer. The von Kármán constant was determined from the near-neutral wind profiles to be 0.36 ± 0.02 rather than the classical value of 0.4. The TKE budget was normalized and all terms were parameterized as functions of a stability parameter z/L, where z is the distance from the ground and L is the Obukhov length. The shear production followed the Businger–Dyer relation for −2 < z/L < 1. Contrary to the traditional Monin–Obukhov similarity theory (MOST), the shear, buoyancy and dissipation terms were found to be imbalanced due to a non-zero vertical transport over all stabilities. Motivated by this local imbalance, modified parameterizations of the dissipation and the turbulent transport were attempted and generated good agreement with the experimental data. Assuming stationarity and horizontal homogeneity, the pressure transport was estimated from the residual of the TKE budget.     

Intermittency of Turbulence in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer: Scaling Exponents and Stratification Influence

We show the relationship between the intermittency of turbulence and the type of stratification for different atmospheric situations during the SABLES98 field campaign. With this objective, we first demonstrate the scaling behaviour of the velocity structure functions corresponding to these situations; next, we analyze the curvature of the scaling exponents of the velocity structure functions versus the order of these functions (ζ _p vs. p), where ζ _p are the exponents of the power relation for the velocity structure function with respect to the scale. It can be proved that this curve must be concave, under the assumption that the incompressible approximation does not break down at high Reynolds numbers. The physical significance of this kind of curvature is that the energy dissipation rate increases as the scale of the turbulent eddies diminishes (intermittency in the usual sense). However, the constraints imposed by stability, preventing full development of the turbulence, allow the function ζ _p versus p to show any type of curvature. In this case, waves of high frequency trapped by the stability, or bursts of turbulence caused by the breaking up of internal waves, may produce a redistribution of energy throughout the scaling range. Due to this redistribution, the variation with the scale of the energy dissipation rate may be smaller (decreasing the intermittency) and, even in more stable situations, this rate may diminish (instead of increasing) as the scale diminishes (convex form of the curve ζ _p vs. p).     

Novel measurements of atmospheric iodine species by resonance fluorescence

A field instrument has been developed for the purpose of measuring gas-phase atmospheric iodine species in the marine boundary layer. Vacuum UV resonance-fluorescence (RF), generated using a microwave discharge lamp, is employed to detect atomic iodine via the (5p⁴6s)–(5p⁵) transitions around 178–184 nm. The system can be operated in two modes; either to directly measure ambient iodine atoms, or to measure the total photolabile iodine loading of ambient air, through broadband visible photolysis of photolabile iodine-containing species, with subsequent RF detection of the iodine atoms released. In both cases the instrument allows for the in situ measurement of the species detected, which is advantageous for gathering information concerning their local sources and distribution. The instrument is calibrated through generation of a known concentration of iodine atoms from the photolysis of I₂ using a mercury pen-ray lamp. The instrument was deployed for the first time in August 2007 at Mace Head on the west coast of Ireland; initial results from this field trial are presented. Ambient iodine atoms were measured at levels up to 22 ± 4.8 ppt during the day, coinciding with the lowest tides, when Laminaria seaweed beds were exposed. The total photolabile iodine loading was also measured during several night-time and day-time periods and was found to correlate inversely with tidal height. Inferred I₂ concentrations based on these measurements indicate levels of several hundred ppt at the Mace Head site. These measurements represent the first direct observations of ambient iodine atoms and measurement of total photolabile iodine in the atmosphere.     

Attenuating the Absorption Contribution on $${C_{n^{2}}}$$ Estimates with a Large-Aperture Scintillometer

Large-aperture scintillometers (LAS) are often used to characterize atmospheric turbulence by measuring the structure parameter of the refractive index C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} . However, absorption phenomena can lead to an overestimation of C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} . By applying an accurate numerical filtering technique called the Gabor transform to the signal output of a LAS, we improved our knowledge of the accuracy of the measured C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} by determining and attenuating the contribution of absorption. Two studies are presented on a 12-day dataset using either fixed band pass or adaptive filtering. The first consists of evaluating the best-fit filter for which the resulting C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} is independent of meteorological conditions, especially crosswind, and the second consists in accurately reconstructing the signal to remove absorption, without losing information on C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} . A reference C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} (hereafter ‘reconstructed C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} ’) is created by accurately removing absorption from the scintillation spectrum, and is used to evaluate each filter. By comparing the ‘reconstructed C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} ’ with a raw C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} measured with a scintillometer, in the presence of absorption, we found that the average relative contribution of absorption to the measurement of C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} is approximately 9%. However, the absorption phenomenon is highly variable; occasionally, in the worst cases, we estimate that the absorption phenomenon could represent 81% of the value of C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} . Some explanations for this high variability are proposed with respect to theoretical considerations. Amongst the fixed band-pass filtering used, we conclude on the preferential use of a band-pass filter [0.2–400 Hz] for C_n²{C_{n^{2}}} , as its performance is only slightly affected by the crosswind, and that the mean absorption contribution is reduced to 5.6%, with a maximum value of 60%. Using an adaptive filter on the 12-day dataset really improves the filtering accuracy for both points discussed—the independence of meteorological conditions and the quality of signal reconstruction.     

Improvement of Vertical Diffusion Analytic Schemes Under Stable Atmospheric Conditions

Based on gradient transport theory or K-theory, turbulent transport in the atmosphere has long been parameterized using the eddy diffusivity. Due to its simplicity, this approach has often been applied in many numerical models but rarely tested with observations. Here, the widely used O’Brien cubic polynomial approach has been validated together with an exponential approach against eddy diffusivity profiles determined from measurements and from large-eddy simulation data in stable conditions. Verification is completed by analyzing the variability effects on pollutant concentrations of two different vertical diffusion (K(z)) schemes incorporated in an atmospheric chemical model. It is shown that the analytical, exponential solution agrees better with observations than the O’Brien profile and should be used henceforth in practical applications.     

Temperature–Humidity Dissimilarity and Heat-to-water-vapour Transport Efficiency Above and Within a Pine Forest Canopy: the Role of the Bowen Ratio

Over the past 15 years atmospheric surface-layer experiments over heterogeneous canopies have shown that the vertical transfer of sensible heat and water vapour exhibit a strong dissimilarity. In particular, the sensible-heat-to-water-vapour transport efficiencies generally exceed unity. One of the main consequences is that evaporation (latent heat flux) computed by the flux-variance method is overestimated, as persistently demonstrated by comparisons with evaporation obtained with the eddy-correlation method. Various authors proposed to take into account the temperature–humidity dissimilarity to extend the applicability of the flux-variance method in order to compute evaporation from non-uniform surfaces. They attempted to connect the sensible-heat-to-water-vapour transport efficiency (λ) to the correlation coefficient between temperature and humidity turbulent fluctuations (R _Tq ). This approach was found to be successful over ‘wet’ surfaces for which λ can be approximated by R _Tq and ‘dry’ surfaces for which λ can be approximated by 1/R _Tq . However, no solution has been proposed until now for intermediate hydrological conditions. We investigated this question using eddy-correlation measurements above and inside a pine forest canopy. For both levels, our data present a strong likeness with previously published results over heterogeneous surfaces. In particular, they confirm that λ is R _Tq in wet conditions and 1/R _Tq in dry conditions. Moreover, we defined the range of the Bowen ratio (Bo) values for which those two approximations are valid (below 0.1 and greater than 1, respectively) and established a relationship between λ, R _Tq and Bo for the intermediate range of Bo. We are confident that this new parameterization will enlarge the applicability of the flux-variance method to all kinds of heterogeneous surfaces in various hydrological conditions