Distribution,origin, and potential toxicological significance of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments of Kaohsiung Harbor,Taiwan

Sediment samples were collected from 12 locations of Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan and analyzed for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Total PAH concentrations varied from 472 to 16,201 ng g⁻¹ dry weight. The highest PAH concentrations were from the industrial zone docks situated in south Kaohsiung Harbor. Diagnostic ratios showed that the possible source of PAHs in the industrial zone dock could be coal combustion while in the other zones it could be petroleum combustion. The toxic equivalent concentrations (TEQ^carc) of PAHs varied from 55 to 1964 ng TEQ g⁻¹ dry weight. Higher total TEQ^carc values were found at industrial zone docks (from 1404 to 1964 ng TEQ g⁻¹ dry weight). As compared with the US Sediment Quality Guidelines (SQGs), the observed levels of PAHs at industrial zone docks exceeded the effects range low (ERL), and could thus cause acute biological damage. However, the lower levels of PAHs at the other zones would probably not exert adverse biological effects.     

Sediment PAH: Contrasting levels in the Caspian Sea and Anzali Wetland

A comparative study of 23 PAH congeners in sediment of the Caspian Sea coast and Anzali Wetland was conducted in 2010. Surface sediment was analyzed using chromatography and mass spectrometry. Total PAH concentrations ranged between 212 and 9009 ng g⁻¹ dw. Spatial distribution maps revealed that PAH levels were higher in the coastal areas of the Caspian Sea where oil related activities have been common since 1800’s. Diagnostic ratios analysis indicated that PAHs largely originated from petrogenic processes. PAH toxicity level was assessed using sediment quality guidelines and toxic equivalent concentrations to determine toxic effects on marine organism. Based on these investigations, in our study areas, the probability of toxicity for benthic organisms is “low to medium”. The toxic equivalent concentrations of carcinogenic PAHs varied between 11 and 231 ng TEQ/g; higher total toxic equivalent concentrations values were found in the coastal areas of the Caspian Sea.     

Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of the Hormuz strait,Persian Gulf

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in the sediment from the Hormuz strait, Persian Gulf. The sum of 16 PAHs (ΣPAH) concentrations varied from 72.17 to 277.77 ng g⁻¹ dry weight, with an average value of 131.20 ± 59.29 ng g⁻¹ dry weight. An ecological risk assessment of PAHs, indicated that adverse biological effects caused by acenaphthene and acenaphthylene occasionally may take place in the sediment of Hormuz strait. PAH source identification showed that the PAHs in the sediments come from pyrogenic and mixed origin. Based on classification of pollution levels, sediments from Hormuz strait could be considered as low to moderately polluted with PAHs.     

Organic pollutants (PAHs,PCBs) in sediments from the Mar Piccolo in Taranto (Ionian Sea,Southern Italy)

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 17 parent polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in surface sediments from nine stations in the Mar Piccolo of Taranto (Ionian Sea, Southern Italy). Total PAH concentrations ranged from 380 to 12,750 μg/kg d.w., while total PCB levels ranged from 2 to 1684 μg/kg d.w.; this values were higher than those found in others marine coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. For PAHs, low molecular weight/high molecular weight, phenanthrene/anthracene and fluoranthene/pyrene ratio were used for discriminating between pyrolitic and petroleum origin. Results showed that PAHs were mainly of pyrolitic origin. PCB and PAH levels in sediments were compared with Sediments Quality Guidelines (ERM–ERL, TEL–PEL indexes) for evaluation probable toxic effects on marine organism. Finally, ERM and PEL quotients were used to evaluate the degree to which chemicals exceed guidelines. Results suggest an ecotoxicological risk for benthic organisms mainly in the first inlet, where high concentrations of PCBs were found in sediments influenced by harbour activities.     

Occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in seawater from the Western Taiwan Strait,China

Seawater samples (including surface water and bottom water) were collected from the Western Taiwan Strait (WTS) during June 24–25, 2009; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in dissolved phase and particulate phase were analyzed, respectively. The results showed that the total concentrations of PAHs in the dissolved phase and particulate phase were ranged from 12.3 to 58.0 ng L⁻¹, and 10.3–45.5 ng L⁻¹, which showed a low-middle contamination level in the China Seas. The spatial variability of PAHs may be related to the complicated currents of WTS, especially the Min-Zhe coastal current. PAHs diagnostic ratios suggested that PAHs mainly originated from the inputs of pyrolytic (combustion) sources, which might be contributed to land-based atmospheric deposition. The particle-water partition coefficients of individual PAH showed that partitions were not correlated with suspended particulate matter content, dissolved organic carbon or salinity, similar to the Yangtze coastal area.     

Occurrence and phase distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in riverine runoff of the Pearl River Delta,China

The occurrence and phase distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in waters at the eight riverine outlets of the Pearl River Delta (China) were examined based on a monthly sampling program from March 2005 to February 2006. The total concentrations of PAHs in the aqueous phase and suspended particulate matter (SPM) combined ranged from 55.5 to 522 ng/L, at the mid level of the global values in rivers and estuaries. No clear temporal and spatial trends of PAH concentrations were found. However, the concentrations of PAHs associated with SPM coincided with the monthly precipitation of Guangzhou, indicating the importance of atmospheric deposition. The PAHs found in the region were likely derived from a combined pyrolytic and petrogenic origin, as suggested by the molecular indices of PAHs. Normalized partition coefficient (K_oc) between water and SPM was correlated with octanol–water partition coefficient (K_ow) to understand the environmental behavior of PAHs.     

Enrichment and partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sea surface microlayer and subsurface water along the coast of Xiamen Island,China

Sea microlayer (SML) and subsurface water (SSW) samples were collected around Xiamen Island to study the enrichment and partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Total PAH concentrations ranged from 93.43 to 411.05 ng L⁻¹ in the SML and 49.29–279.42 ng L⁻¹ in the SSW. Compared with the results of previous studies before pollution control measurements, PAHs levels decreased significantly. The enrichment factors (EFs) of dissolved and particulate PAHs varied from 0.68 to 2.71 and 0.43–3.56. EFs showed the consistent enrichment trends with sites and exhibited different enrichment characteristics between 2 and 3 ring PAHs and 4 ring PAHs. Furthermore, the much higher concentrations of BaP (strong carcinogenicity) were accompanied by higher EFs in the SML samples from the Western Xiamen Harbour, which together indicated the risk of impacts to the fish eggs that usually float on the SML water after exposure to oil spills and combustion, contributed directly by the port and shipping activities.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of the East China Sea and their relationship with carbonaceous materials

This study measured concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments in the East China Sea (ECS) to investigate possible sources and fate of PAHs. Total concentration of PAHs in the sediments of the ECS ranged from 22 to 244 ng g⁻¹, with the highest levels in the coastal area and outer shelf. The observed PAH results showed elevated levels in both inner and outer shelf areas, a finding that is different from predictions by an ocean circulation model, suggesting that terrestrial sources are important for PAH contaminations in the ECS, while sediment resuspension, tidal changes and lateral transport may be important in affecting the distribution of PAHs in the outer shelf. The distribution of PAHs in the surface sediments of the ECS is similar to the distribution of carbonaceous materials (e.g., particulate organic carbon and black carbon), suggesting that carbonaceous materials may strongly affect the distribution of PAHs.     

PAHs contamination and bacterial communities in mangrove surface sediments of the Jiulong River Estuary,China

Sixteen sediment samples collected from eight transects in a mangrove swamp of the Jiulong River Estuary, Fujian, China were investigated for their content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the biodegradation potential of the indigenous microorganisms. The bacterial community structures in the mangrove sediments and in enrichment cultures were also investigated. The results showed that the total PAHs concentration of mangrove sediments ranged from 280 to 1074 ng g⁻¹ dry weight, that the PAHs composition pattern in the mangrove sediments was dominated by high molecular weight PAH components (4–6 rings), and that Benzo[ghi]perylene and Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene were the most dominant at different stations. Abundant PAH-degrading bacteria were found in all the stations, the values of phenanthrene-degrading bacteria ranged from 5.85 × 10⁴ to 7.80 × 10⁵ CFU g⁻¹ dry weight, fluoranthene-degrading bacteria ranged from 5.25 × 10⁴ to 5.79 × 10⁵ CFU g⁻¹ dry weight, pyrene-degrading bacteria ranged from 3.10 × 10⁴ to 6.97 × 10⁵ CFU g⁻¹ dry weight and the benzo(a)pyrene-degrading bacteria ranged from 5.25 × 10⁴ to 7.26 × 10⁵ CFU g⁻¹ dry weight. DGGE analysis of PCR-amplified 16S rDNA gene fragments confirmed that there was a remarkable shift in the composition of the bacterial community due to the addition of the different model PAH compound phenanthrene (three ring PAH), fluoranthene(four ring PAH), pyrene(four ring PAH) and benzo(a)pyrene(five ring PAH) during enrichment batch culture. Eleven strains were obtained with different morphology and different degradation ability. The presence of common bands for microbial species in the cultures and in the native mangrove sediment DNA indicated that these strains could be potential in situ PAH-degraders.     

Distribution,sources, and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments from the Nantong Coast,China

The distribution, sources, and ecological risk assessment of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in surface sediments from the Nantong coast in China were investigated. The results indicated that the total concentrations of the 16 PAHs in the surface sediments from the study area ranged from 1.4 to 87.1 ng g^? 1 dw (mean value 19.9 ng g^? 1 dw), which were generally low compared to the adjacent offshore area and other coastal zones around the world. The selected PAH ratios and the principal components analysis for each site showed that petroleum combustion and petrogenic pollution (mainly caused by petroleum spills) were the dominant PAHs sources in the surface sediments of the coast. The ecological risk assessment indicated that most of the individual PAHs had few negative effects in this area.     

An assessment of an oil spill in Gladstone,Australia – Impacts on intertidal areas at one month post-spill

In January 2006, 25 tonnes of heavy fuel oil spilled into the Port of Gladstone in Queensland, Australia, from the breached hull of a bulk carrier ship. Over the following days, approximately 18 tonnes of the oil was recovered, however a certain amount of oil was deposited in the intertidal areas of Port Curtis leaving a highly visible, viscous residue. The objectives of this research were to assess the immediate impacts on the intertidal habitat and to gain baseline information for future comparative assessments.Sediment PAH and metal concentrations, mangrove communities and intertidal macroinvertebrates were assessed within one month post-spill at oil-impacted sites; adjacent sites which were not visibly impacted; and reference sites which were located outside the recorded distribution of the oil spill. Highest PAH concentrations were found at the impacted sites, with concentrations of some PAHs exceeding Australian and New Zealand Sediment Quality Guidelines (ANZECC/ARMCANZ, 2000). These sites contained very few or no crab holes in the high intertidal area, indicating a low crab density in comparison to reference sites. Little immediate impact was evident on the mangrove and macrobenthic communities, however future surveys may show evidence of longer-term impacts on these communities.     

Antifouling biocides in water and sediments from California marinas

Irgarol 1051 is a common antifouling biocide and is highly toxic to non-target plant species at low ng/L concentrations. We measured up to 254 ng/L Irgarol in water and up to 9 ng/g dry weight Irgarol in sediments from Southern California recreational marinas. Irgarol’s metabolite, M1, concentrations were up to 62 ng/L in water and 5 ng/g dry weight in sediments. Another antifouling biocide, diuron, reached up to 68 ng/L in water and 4 ng/g dry weight in sediments. The maximum Irgarol concentrations in water were greater than the Irgarol concentration recommended as the plant toxicity benchmark (136 ng/L), suggesting that Irgarol concentrations may be high enough to cause changes in phytoplankton communities in the sampled marinas. Irgarol concentrations measured in sediments were greater than calculated Environmental Risk Limits (ERLs) for Irgarol in sediments (1.4 ng/g). Antifouling pesticide accumulation in sediments may present a potential undetermined risk for benthic organisms.     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal water,surface sediment and mullet Liza klunzingeri from northern part of Hormuz strait (Persian Gulf)

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in mullet (Liza klunzingeri), water and sediment from northern part of Hormuz strait (Persian Gulf). The concentration levels of total PAHs in L. klunzingeri, water and sediment were 133.99–268.57 ng g⁻¹ dry weight, 3.12–5.88 ng l⁻¹ and 42.29–228.9 ng g⁻¹ dry weight, respectively. Based on isomer ratios, analysis of the PAHs source in the sediment demonstrated that the PAHs come from pyrogenic and petrogenic origin. Risk assessment showed PAHs threshold concentrations to occasionally be exceeded in the study area.     

Total,methyl and organic mercury in sediments of the Southern Baltic Sea

Distribution of sedimentary mercury in the Southern Baltic was investigated. Sediment samples were collected from the Southern Baltic in the period from 2009 to 2011, and concentrations of sedimentary total mercury (average 102 ng/g, range 5.8–225 ng/g) and methyl mercury (average 261 pg/g, range 61–940 pg/g) were measured in the manner that the influence of both patchiness and seasonal changes were assessed. Moreover, sedimentary mercury extracted with organic solvent- the so-called organic mercury was also analyzed (average 425 pg/g, range 100–1440 pg/g). There is a statistically significant dependence between organic mercury and both methyl mercury and total mercury concentrations in the sediments. Methyl mercury contribution to total mercury varied from 0.12% to 1.05%, while organic mercury contributed to 2% of total concentration on average. The area studied, although mercury concentrations exceed threefold the geochemical background, can be regarded as moderately contaminated with mercury, and methylmercury.     

Combined effects of land reclamation,channel dredging upon the bioavailable concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Victoria Harbour sediment,Hong Kong

The up-to-date concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediment materials of Victoria Harbour was investigated so as to evaluate the pollution potential associated with the reclamation projects in Hong Kong. A total of 100 sediment samples were collected at 20 locations. Except the control point in reservoir, the PAHs concentrations were detectable levels all sites (131–628.3 ng/g, dw) and such values were higher than Dutch Target and Intervention Values (the New Dutch standard in 2016). The PAHs concentration indicating that construction waste and wastewater discharges were the main pollutant sources. Results of correlation in single cell gel electrophoresis assay (comet assay) studies also revealed that the PAHs concentration was highly correlated (< 0.01) with DNA migration (i.e. the length of tail moment of fish cells) in 5 mg/ml of PAHs. The above observation indicates that the PAHs present in the sediment may substantially effect the marine ecosystem. Although the dredged sediment can be a useful sea-filling material for land reclamation; however, the continuing leaching of PAHs and its impact on the aquatic environment need to be studied further.     

A cleaner river: Long term use of semipermeable membrane devices demonstrate that concentrations of selected organochlorines and PAHs in the Brisbane River estuary,Queensland have reduced substantially over the past decade

We first used semipermeable membrane devices as samplers to evaluate concentrations of organochlorines and PAHs in the Brisbane River in 1998. Here we revisit this work and repeat the study a decade later in the same season (summer), also taking account of results from a similar study involving PAHs in the summer of 2001–2002. The accumulation of organochlorines and most PAHs in the samplers in the recent assessment was substantially less than in the 1998 deployment, suggesting that the ambient concentrations of these chemicals have decreased considerably over the last decade. In all cases there was high reproducibility of the mass of chemicals accumulated in the sampler. We used performance reference compounds in the later deployment, and assuming that the kinetics were similar in both deployment periods, we estimate that the concentration of dieldrin, the organochlorine found at highest concentrations, decreased from approximately 3.9 ng/L to about 1.4 ng/L. The decrease of most other analytes of interest including DDE and DDD was greater, potentially indicating that dieldrin is still entering the Brisbane River through run-off from urban areas where it was used widely for treatment of termites until 1995. DDT use in Australia ceased in the mid 1980s.     

Distribution,potential sources and ecological risks of two persistent organic pollutants in the intertidal sediment at the Shuangtaizi Estuary,Bohai Sea of China

Spatial distribution, source apportionment, and potential ecological risks of sixteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and seven endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) in the intertidal sediment at the Shuangtaizi Estuary, Bohai Sea of China were analyzed. Results showed that the total PAH concentrations ranged from 28.79 ng g^? 1 dw to 281.97 ng g^? 1 dw (mean: 115.92 ng g^? 1 dw) and the total EDC concentrations from 0.52 ng g^? 1 dw to 126.73 ng g^? 1 dw (mean: 37.49 ng g^? 1 dw). The distribution pattern for the PAHs was generally different from that of the EDCs possibly due to their distinct sources and n-octanol-/water partition coefficients (K_OW). Qualitative and quantitative analytical results showed that PAH sources were mainly from a mixture of pyrogenic and petrogenic contributions. The higher levels at the southeast of Geligang indicated that the EDC pollutants may have mainly originated from the plastic industry and other chemical plants located along the Liao River. Ecological risk assessment revealed that PAHs exhibited low ecotoxicological effects, whereas EDCs, especially 4-tert-octylphenol and bisphenol A, had high ecological hazard to the estuarine biota.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ether congeners in the young-of-the-year bluefish,Pomatomus saltatrix,from several nursery habitats along the US Atlantic coastline

Spatial trends of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners were examined by using high resolution gas chromatography – low resolution electron impact mass spectrometry (GC-EIMS) in 414 samples of young-of-the-year (YOY) bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) collected from a total of 29 nursery habitats along the US Atlantic coastline from Massachusetts to Florida. Of the 26 target PBDE congeners, BDE-47 (4 Br), BDE-100 (5 Br), BDE-49 (4 Br), BDE-99 (5 Br), and BDE-154 (6 Br) were the five most frequently detected congeners in the order of decreasing importance. The sum of the concentrations of five major PBDE congeners, referred to as ΣPBDEs, varied between estuaries and also among samples from a given estuary. ΣPBDEs were lowest in YOY bluefish from Vineyard Sound, Nantucket Sound, Great Bay, Delaware Bay, Lynnhaven Bay, Cape Lookout, and Crescent Beach, with maximum ΣPBDE concentrations below 10 ng/g wet weight. ΣPBDEs in three bluefish samples from Stamford Harbor were detected at relatively high to unusually high concentrations of 69.1, 205, and 561 ng/g wet weight. ΣPBDE values for other Stamford Harbor bluefish were generally low. Highest PBDE concentrations were detected in the vicinity of industrial and urban locations within the New York – New Jersey metropolitan complex. Among them, bluefish from Newark Bay were generally the most contaminated with an average ΣPBDE value of 56.6 ± 30.8 ng/g wet weight. ΣPBDEs in bluefish from Newark Bay were numerically greater than ΣPBDEs in bluefish from all locations, however these differences were not statistically significant. Modest to good correlations between ΣPBDEs and lipids were observed for YOY bluefish from Buzzards Bay, Upper New Bedford Harbor, Lower New Bedford Harbor, Outer New Bedford Harbor, Providence Harbor, Housatonic River, Norwalk Harbor, Little Neck Bay, Newark Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Great Bay, Delaware Bay, Patuxent River and Crescent Beach. Poor correlations between ΣPBDE and lipids were observed for bluefish from other estuaries. ΣPBDEs were not always correlated with fish length or weight. ΣPBDEs in YOY bluefish along the US Atlantic coastline modestly paralleled ΣPBDEs in mussels and oysters, from not exact but geographically loosely similar locations, reported in the NOAA Mussel Watch Program. A number of researchers who used the high resolution mass spectrometry reported additional PBDE congeners. Although PBDE congeners we report do appear to be the prominent congeners in these studies, it is likely that the comparisons will be skewed in certain instances.     

Perfluorinated compounds in surficial sediments of the Ganges River and adjacent Sundarban mangrove wetland,India

This study reports the first evidence of the quantification of two dominant perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), namely perfluorooctanesulfate (PFOS) and perfluorooctannoate (PFOA), in surface sediment samples (0–5 cm; n = 13) from the Ganges (Hugli) River including Sundarban wetland, India using HPLC–MS/MS. The concentrations of PFOA exhibited a wide range of concentrations from <0.5 to 14.09 ng/g dry wt, whereas the concentration of PFOS was always below the detection limit of <0.5 ng/g dry wt. A consistent enrichment of PFOA was recorded in all the five sites of Sundarban (mean value 11.61 ± 1.86) whereas it was of moderate concentration or below the detection level in the seven sites along with the lower stretch of the Ganges (Hugli) River estuary (mean value 5.96 ng/g dry wt ± 5.36). Wastewater and untreated effluents are likely the major causes of accumulation of PFCs in sediments. The present paper could be used as baseline study to assess future monitoring programs of the ecosystem.     

Microbial community dynamics and biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in polluted marine sediments in Hong Kong

Dynamics of microbial community and biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in polluted marine sediments, artificially spiked with a mixture of PAHs (fluorene, phenanthrene, fluoranthene and pyrene), were examined for a period of 60 days. Microbial communities were characterised by bacterial counts, ester-linked fatty acid methyl ester (EL-FAME) analysis and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). A noted reduction in species diversity occurred only in the high PAH level treatment at onset. Both EL-FAME and DGGE demonstrated a marked shift in microbial community, in all the PAH level treatments, afterwards, with increases in the number of fatty acid degraders, the relative abundance of fatty acid biomarkers for gram-negative bacteria and a decrease in species diversity. The shift was also accompanied by the significant decrease in PAH concentrations. By the end of the experiment, diversity indices, based on both approaches, recovered when PAH concentrations declined to their background levels, except in the high PAH level treatment.