滇东南南捞铜钨矿床S-Pb同位素特征

南捞是近年来滇东南老君山西北部地区新发现的矽卡岩铜钨矿床,由田房、布忙和高井槽等矿段组成,已探明铜钨资源储量均达到中型。为了查明其矿床成因,开展了矿床地质和S-Pb同位素等研究。结果表明,田房矿段中硫化物以似层状毒砂、脉状黄铜矿和黄铁矿等硫化物为主,其中,黄铜矿δ~(34)S_(CDT)值在4.05‰~11.02‰之间,呈塔式分布,暗示矿石S以岩浆或深部热液为主,并可能受地壳混染。不同金属矿物Pb同位素差异显著,具多来源特征。田房、布忙矿段中各矿石单矿物铅同位素组成~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb分别为:白钨矿,18.412~18.761、15.600~15.789、38.504~39.094;黄铜矿,18.301~18.345、15.652~15.696、38.488~38.564;黄铁矿,17.871~18.972、15.415~16.037、38.008~39.769;毒砂,17.917~18.093、15.524~15.650、38.004~38.283。对比研究表明,矿石与寒武系片岩和大理岩具有不同的Pb同位素组成,与加里东期南捞片麻岩或燕山期老君山花岗岩有相似分布范围。结合年代学研究成果,本文认为南捞Cu-W矿床的矿石Pb及其成矿金属物质可能起源于加里东期岩浆作用,其成矿作用与加里东期花岗岩作用更为密切,南捞片麻岩与寒武系的内外接触带附近,尤其是高温矿物组合部位可能是矿化的有利部位,该类矿化在该区找矿潜力巨大。     

福建紫金山矿田浅成低温热液型矿床成矿物质来源探讨——H、O、S、Pb同位素地球化学证据

紫金山高硫型浅成低温热液型铜金矿床和悦洋低硫型浅成低温热液型银多金属矿床为紫金山矿田内2个典型矿床。为了确定矿床成矿流体和成矿金属来源,文章系统研究了2个矿床的H、O、S、Pb同位素组成特征。结果显示,在紫金山铜金矿床深部的铜矿脉中,6件石英的δDV-SMOW值为-62.0‰~-58.5‰,δ18OV-SMOW值为12.0‰~14.6‰,δ18OH2O值介于2.4‰~6.5‰;26件金属硫化物的δ34S值介于-13‰~2.9‰,峰值介于-5‰~1‰;16件金属硫化物的206Pb/204Pb值介于17.966~18.785,207Pb/204Pb值介于15.571~15.722,208Pb/204Pb值介于38.127~38.849。在悦洋矿区的矿脉中,1件石英样品的δDV-SMOW值为66.6‰;5件石英样品δ18OV-SMOW值介于10.0‰~13.7‰,δ18OH2O值介于-1.1‰~3.4‰;13件金属硫化物的δ34S值介于-6.8‰~-1.0‰,平均值-4‰;5件金属硫化物的206Pb/204Pb值介于18.405~18.521,207Pb/204Pb值介于15.620~15.685,208Pb/204Pb值介于38.587~38.863。H、O同位素特征显示,紫金山铜金矿床的成矿流体水主要来自岩浆水,混合少量大气降水;悦洋银矿床则以大气降水为主,有少量的岩浆水加入。硫化物的S和Pb同位素特征显示,紫金山铜金矿床的成矿物质主要来源于早白垩世岩浆岩,悦洋银矿床的成矿物质主要来源于围岩及早白垩世岩浆岩。     

右江褶皱带东南缘西大明山矿集区铅同位素地球化学特征及其地质意义

广西西大明山多金属矿集区是右江褶皱带东南缘近年找矿突破的重要地区,发育凤凰山特大型银矿床、罗维中型钨锌多金属矿床、弄屯大型铅锌矿床及一些中、小型矿床等。其中罗维和弄屯矿床是近年新发现的矿床,矿体分别呈层状赋存于寒武系碎屑岩和呈脉状赋存于寒武系与泥盆系接触界面附近或断裂破碎带中。笔者对矿集区内层状和脉状矿床矿石硫化物铅同位素进行研究,并与赋矿围岩、隐伏二长花岗岩进行对比。铅同位素数据显示:罗维层状矿床矿石硫化物铅同位素组成为:~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=18.1320~18.5980,~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb=15.5920~15.7988,~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb=38.4041~39.0461;弄屯脉状矿床矿石硫化物铅同位素组成为:~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb=18.3240~18.5060,~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb=15.7321~15.9140,~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb=38.6511~39.2311;二者具有相似的同位素组成,但弄屯矿床矿石硫化物~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb比值略高于罗维矿床矿石硫化物。罗维矿床矿石硫化物铅同位素组成与深部隐伏二长花岗岩铅同位素组成一致;而弄屯矿床矿石硫化物~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb值介于二长花岗岩和地层铅同位同位素组成之间,且矿石~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb比值指示矿石铅可能来源于上泥盆统莲花山组碎屑岩与中寒武统黄洞口组碎屑岩。渌井和大新铅锌矿床显示出异常高的~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb,暗示可能还有其他富铀的地质体为成矿提供放射成因铅,铅同位素特征值(μ值、ω值)揭示矿石硫化物和岩体都具有壳源铅的特征;从垂向上,各矿床距罗维隐伏岩体顶界距离增加,岩浆铅减少,地层铅增加。综合研究认为,西大明山多金属矿集区应属于典型的与深部燕山期岩体侵入有关的岩浆热液充填交代型矿床,成矿物质主要来源于燕山期岩浆和围岩地层。     

湖南省留书塘铅锌矿床S、Pb同位素特征及意义

对湖南省留书塘铅锌矿床不同阶段矿石硫化物进行的S、Pb同位素研究表明,17件矿石样品硫化物的S同位素组成变化范围较宽(δ34S=-12.8‰~4.6‰),具有地层有机硫(约-13‰)与岩浆硫(约5‰)混合特征。从早阶段到晚阶段,硫化物呈现出δ34S值逐渐升高、极差逐渐增大的演化趋势。最晚形成的重晶石矿石硫由地层硫酸盐提供。13件硫化物样品的Pb同位素组成比较稳定,~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb值变化范围分别为18.627~18.942、15.670~15.804和38.366~38.912,平均值分别为18.747、15.705和38.614。与区内新元古界—寒武系基底、邻区湘南与铅锌矿相关的岩浆岩钾长石Pb同位素进行的对比表明,矿石铅主要来源于矿区深部岩浆岩,少部分可能来自于基底寒武纪地层。结合宏观地质特征分析,留书塘矿床可能是与岩浆岩有关的热液充填交代矿床,其成矿物质具有多来源特征。     

东昆仑那更康切尔银矿床S-Pb-C-O同位素地球化学特征

那更康切尔银矿床位于东昆仑成矿带中部,紧邻昆中构造带。矿体主要以脉状产出于古元古代金水口群片麻岩以及晚古生代花岗闪长岩和二长花岗岩中。本文在矿床地质特征研究基础上,采集12件样品对其硫化物(黄铁矿、方铅矿、闪锌矿)和方解石分别开展了S-Pb和C-O同位素研究。结果表明,矿床硫同位素组成稳定,δ~(34)S主要集中于-3.4‰~0.6‰之间,主要来源于岩浆作用;硫化物~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb值介于18.28~18.62,平均值为18.37,~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb值介于15.60~15.73,平均值为15.65,~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb值介于38.38~39.10,平均值为38.63,铅同位素组成稳定,矿石铅主要来源于地壳;方解石δ~(13)C值介于-6.0‰~-2.8‰,平均值为-4.25‰,δ~(18)O值介于6.1‰~20.5‰,平均值为12.49‰,表明C可能主要由岩浆作用提供。综合矿床地质特征和区域成矿背景认为该矿床应属于岩浆期后热液矿床,受构造和岩浆作用的双重控制。     

河南内乡县板厂铜多金属矿辉钼矿Re-Os年代学及硫、铅同位素地球化学特征

板厂铜多金属矿床是东秦岭造山带近年来找矿取得重大突破的一处以铜为主的多金属矿床,其上部发育脉状铜铅锌银矿化,下部发育铜钼矿化.通过对矿石中辉钼矿开展Re-Os同位素定年、对花岗岩进行锆石U-Pb定年,结合硫化物的硫、铅同位素特征,讨论了矿床的成矿时代、矿床成因及成矿动力学背景.6件辉钼矿Re-Os模式年龄为149.8±2.4 Ma~151.5±2.3 Ma,加权平均年龄为150.7±1.9 Ma,等时线年龄为151.0±4.6 Ma,显示成矿作用发生于晚侏罗世.矿区南部纸坊沟花岗斑岩体的锆石U-Pb年龄为148±1 Ma,说明区域上存在成矿期的花岗岩浆活动.11件硫化物硫同位素δ34S_V-CDT值介于-1.2‰~1.2‰,显示深源岩浆硫的特征,206Pb/204Pb值为17.178~17.709,207Pb/204Pb值为15.430~15.528,208Pb/204Pb值为37.476~37.847,与北秦岭燕山期花岗岩和南秦岭地壳基底具一致的铅同位素组成,明显不同于北秦岭地层的铅同位素,成矿物质来源于燕山期岩浆岩.结合矿床地质特征,研究表明板厂铜多金属矿床为与燕山期岩浆有关的类矽卡岩型-热液脉型铜多金属矿床,属岩浆热液成矿系统,形成于岩石圈减薄的构造背景.      

西藏洞中拉铅锌矿床S,Pb,Sr同位素组成对成矿物质来源的示踪

洞中拉铅锌矿床位于西藏冈底斯东段念青唐古拉山地区扎雪—金达成矿带内,为印度—亚洲大陆主碰撞期形成的矿床.在分析该矿床成矿地质条件的基础上,对该矿床的主要金属硫化物的S,Pb,Sr同位素组成进行分析,并对成矿物质来源进行示踪讨论.研究表明:矿石硫化物的δ34S组成变化范围较窄,变化范围为3.0‰～5.7‰,多数集中于4.0‰～6.0‰之间,具有塔式分布效应,估算的总硫同位素值δ34 S∑s为4.7‰,具有岩浆硫的特征.矿石铅同位素组成稳定,矿石的206Pb/204Pb,207Pb/204Pb,208Pb/204Pb的变化范围分别为:18.628～18.746,15.698～15.802,39.077～39.430,与矿区岩浆岩的铅同位素组成一致,为正常普通铅,矿石铅来源于早白垩世上地壳物质部分熔融形成的岩浆.矿石锶同位素的初始值(87 Sr/86 Sr)i较高,介于0.717 32～0.727 67之间,成矿物质来源于地壳.     

滇西北中甸地区休瓦促岩浆热液型Mo-W矿床S、Pb同位素对成矿物质来源的约束

滇西北中甸地区位于义敦岛弧南段,近年来勘探及研究工作发现区内燕山晚期发育有一期重要的Mo-Cu-(W)矿化,明显区别于义敦岛弧北段同期的Sn-Ag-Pb-Zn多金属矿化,也不同于同地区印支期大量发育的斑岩型Cu矿化。目前,中甸地区燕山晚期Mo-Cu-(W)矿化成矿物质来源研究相对较弱,尚不能很好地解释这些成矿作用主要成矿元素存在差别的原因。休瓦促矿床是中甸地区代表性的燕山晚期大型岩浆热液型Mo-W矿床,前人定年结果显示成矿年龄为~83Ma。矿区内发育有三阶段的晚白垩世花岗岩,岩性主要有黑云母花岗斑岩、二长花岗岩和碱长花岗岩;且碱长花岗岩体下方还发育有萤石-长石似伟晶岩脉。矿化类型主要为石英脉型、近石英脉蚀变花岗岩型和斑岩型Mo-W矿化;矿体主要产在岩体内部,受控于北北西向断裂构造。蚀变类型有钾化、云英岩化、绢云母化及硅化等。流体包裹体测温显示成矿流体为含CO2的中高温(146.6~550.0℃),中低盐度(3.15%~12.51%NaC leqv)的H2O-NaC l热液,可能主要来自于岩浆期后热液。多种金属硫化物与燕山晚期花岗岩具有一致的初始Pb同位素组成(206Pb/204Pb=18.610~19.460,207Pb/204Pb=15.606~15.747,208Pb/204Pb=38.815~39.410),显示其成矿物质可能主要源于壳源岩浆作用,S同位素特征(δ34SVCDT:2.07‰~4.33‰)也显示其来自于岩浆作用。通过对比休瓦促Mo-W矿化、义敦岛弧北段同期的Sn-Ag-Pb-Zn多金属矿化及中甸地区印支期斑岩型Cu矿化,这三种与岩浆有关的热液矿化的S、Pb同位素及岩石地球化学性质,发现这三种矿化的成矿岩浆与相应的成矿元素均具有较好的成矿专属性;并指示着在燕山晚期陆内环境下,中甸地区的Mo-Cu-(W)矿化成矿物质来源于加厚的中基性下地壳部分熔融而形成的I型花岗岩,义敦岛弧北段的Sn-Ag-Pb-Zn矿化则主要来源于中酸性变沉积岩地壳的部分熔融而形成的A型花岗岩;而中甸印支期斑岩型的Cu矿化则与幔源岩浆作用有着密切的关系。     

宁芜南门头铜矿碳、氧、硫、铅同位素地球化学特征及其地质意义

为探讨南门头铜矿成矿流体和成矿物质来源,对该矿床的碳、氧、硫和铅同位素进行了研究。结果显示,矿床碳同位素变化不大,为-1.03‰~-0.46‰,氧同位素有两个范围11.40‰~11.80‰和13.50‰~14.00‰,反映成矿流体主要来自深部花岗岩,有部分海相碳酸盐岩地层碳、氧的加入;矿石和花岗岩硫同位素相似,均为较高正值,说明硫主要来源于花岗岩,但有膏盐地层硫的加入;矿石和花岗岩的208Pb/204Pb、207Pb/204Pb、206Pb/204Pb值分别为38.2336~38.4147、15.5618~15.5887、18.1242~18.2936;38.8794~39.5243、15.6194~15.6973、18.7224~19.1461,结合前人Sr、Nd、Hf和Pb同位素特征,说明花岗岩为幔源岩浆上升侵位过程中受到了地壳物质较强的混染形成的,矿石铅来源主要与中生代岩浆岩有关,尚无法排除地层提供部分铅的可能。     

西藏加多捕勒铁铜矿床硫、铅同位素组成及成矿物质来源

加多捕勒铁铜矿床位于念青唐古拉成矿带西段。综合研究围岩、岩体与矿石的硫、铅同位素组成,发现其矿石硫化物的δ~(34)S值变化范围为-2.1‰～6.2‰,δ~(34)S_(ΣS)值为2.16‰,总体具有岩浆硫的特征。矿石硫化物的δ~(34)S值与石英闪长岩、板岩中硫化物的δ~(34)S值相近,表明矿石的硫源可能部分由板岩与石英闪长岩提供。矿石铅同位素组成比较均一,~(206)Pb/~(204)Pb、~(207)Pb/~(204)Pb和~(208)Pb/~(204)Pb的变化范围分别为18.27～18.842、15.653～15.899和38.793～39.703,与冈底斯成矿带北亚带矿床矿石硫化物的铅同位素组成相近,具有上地壳铅源的特征。矿石铅同位素组成与黑云母二长花岗岩、大理岩的铅同位素组成一致,显示铅可能主要来源于黑云母二长花岗岩和大理岩。综合分析表明,加多捕勒铁铜矿床硫、铅同位素的研究显示其成矿物质可能主要来源于黑云母二长花岗岩,部分来源于中二叠统下拉组岩石,少量由石英闪长岩提供,它们为深入研究该矿床的成矿模式提供了资料。     

Mountains,nations, parks,and conservation

Between 1985 and 1991, two new mountain protected areas (MTNPA) covering more than 35,000 km² and based on participatory management models — the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area, Nepal, and Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region — were successfully established through the collaborative efforts of Woodlands Mountain Institute and conservationists in China and Nepal. Characteristics common to both projects include the importance of establishing (1) effective rationales, (2) local support constituencies, (3) a senior advisory group, (4) a task force, (5) linkages between conservation and development, and (6) fund raising mechanisms. The lessons derived from the experiences of Woodlands Mountain Institute are of significant value to others in preserving MTNPA. Increased collaboration and communication between all interested in conservation, however, will remain a critical component for expanding mountain protected area coverage to throughout the world.     

Roles of xenomelts,xenoliths, xenocrysts,xenovolatiles, residues,and skarns in the genesis,transport, and localization of magmatic Fe-Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides and chromite

Most sulfide-rich magmatic Ni-Cu-(PGE) deposits form in dynamic magmatic systems by partial melting S-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren to weakly-mineralized immiscible Fe sulfide xenomelts into which Ni-Cu-Co-PGE partition from the magma. Some exceptionally-thick magmatic Cr deposits may form by partial melting oxide-bearing wall rocks with variable degrees of assimilation of the miscible silicate and volatile components, and generation of barren Fe ± Ti oxide xenocrysts into which Cr-Mg-V ± Ti partition from the magma. The products of these processes are variably preserved as skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles, which play important to critical roles in ore genesis, transport, localization, and/or modification. Incorporation of barren xenoliths/autoliths may induce small amounts of sulfide/chromite to segregate, but incorporation of sulfide xenomelts or oxide xenocrysts with dynamic upgrading of metal tenors (PGE > Cu > Ni > Co and Cr > V > Ti, respectively) is required to make significant ore deposits. Silicate xenomelts are only rarely preserved, but will be variably depleted in chalcophile and ferrous metals. Less dense felsic xenoliths may aid upward sulfide transport by increasing the effective viscosity and decreasing the bulk density of the magma. Denser mafic or metamorphosed xenoliths may also increase the effective viscosity of the magma, but may aid downward sulfide transport by increasing the bulk density of the magma. Sulfide wets olivine, so olivine xenocrysts may act as filter beds to collect advected finely dispersed sulfide droplets, but other silicates and xenoliths may not be wetted by sulfides. Xenovolatiles may retard settling of – or in some cases float – dense sulfide droplets. Reactions of sulfide melts with felsic country rocks may generate Fe-rich skarns that may allow sulfide melts to fractionate to more extreme Cu-Ni-rich compositions. Xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and xenovolatiles are more likely to be preserved in cooler basaltic magmas than in hotter komatiitic magmas, and are more likely to be preserved in less dynamic (less turbulent) systems/domain/phases than in more dynamic (more turbulent) systems/domains/phases. Massive to semi-massive Ni-Cu-PGE and Cr mineralization and xenoliths are often localized within footwall embayments, dilations/jogs in dikes, throats of magma conduits, and the horizontal segments of dike-chonolith and dike-sill complexes, which represent fluid dynamic traps for both ascending and descending sulfides/oxides. If skarns, residues, xenoliths, xenocrysts, xenomelts, and/or xenovolatiles are present, they provide important constraints on ore genesis and they are valuable exploration indicators, but they must be included in elemental and isotopic mass balance calculations.     

Comparative study of As,Cd, Cu,Cr, Mg,Mn, Ni,Pb and Zn concentrations between sediment and water from estuary and port

The contents of As, Cd, Cu, Cr, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn have been determined in sediment and water samples from Valle de las Garzas estuary and Port Manzanillo (Colima, Mexico) using ICP-AES. The concentrations of these elements were used for a comparative study to determine the distribution of heavy metals and to evaluate which elements reflect natural or anthropogenic backgrounds. For this purpose, seven sampling points were selected: Four of them correspond to the lagoon, and three were situated in the port. Statistical analysis of the mineral content was assessed. Initially, data comparison was assessed by statistical tests for each variable. Principal component analysis was then applied considering the influence of all variables at the same time by obtaining the distribution of samples according to their scores in the principal component space. In this way, four studies were carried out: (1) study of sediments collected during the dry season; (2) study of sediments collected during the rainy season; (3) comparative study between sediments from rainy and dry season; and (4) study of water composition collected during rainy season. From the results of the performed analyses, it can be concluded that metals distribution pattern reflected natural and anthropogenic backgrounds (e.g., sediments from the lagoon, situated at the beginning of the rain channel, presented high contents of Zn and Cu, perhaps related to anthropogenic activities or the influence of igneous sediments).     

Parents,permission, and possibility: Young women,college, and imagined futures in Gujarat,India

This article advances critical geographies of youth through examining the spatiality implicit in the imagined futures of young women in rural India. Geographers and other scholars of youth have begun to pay more attention to the interplay between young people’s past, present, and imagined futures. Within this emerging body of scholarship the role of the family and peer group in influencing young people’s orientations toward the future remain underexamined. Drawing on eleven months of ethnographic fieldwork, my research focuses on a first generation of college-going young women from socioeconomically marginalized backgrounds in India’s westernmost state of Gujarat. I draw on the “possible selves” theoretical construct in order to deploy a flexible conceptual framework that links imagined post-educational trajectories with motivation to act in the present. In tracing the physical movement of these young women as they navigate and complete college, my analysis highlights the ways in which particular kinds of spaces and spatial arrangements facilitate and limit intra- and inter-generational contact, and the extent to which this affects young women’s conceptions of the future. I conclude by considering the wider implications of my research for ongoing debates surrounding youth transitions, relational geographies of age, and education in the Global South.     

Partition coefficients of Hf,Zr, and REE between zircon,apatite, and liquid

Concentration ratios of Hf, Zr, and REE between zircon, apatite, and liquid were determined for three igneous compositions: two andesites and a diorite. The concentration ratios of these elements between zircon and corresponding liquid can approximate the partition coefficient. Although the concentration ratios between apatite and andesite groundmass can be considered as partition coefficients, those for the apatite in the diorite may deviate from the partition coefficients. The HREE partition coefficients between zircon and liquid are very large (100 for Er to 500 for Lu), and the Hf partition coefficient is even larger. The REE partition coefficients between apatite and liquid are convex upward, and large (D=10–100), whereas the Hf and Zr partition coefficients are less than 1. The large differences between partition coefficients of Lu and Hf for zircon-liquid and for apatite-liquid are confirmed. These partition coefficients are useful for petrogenetic models involving zircon and apatite.     

Coprecipitation of Ti,Mo, Sn and Sb with fluorides and application to determination of B,Ti, Zr,Nb, Mo,Sn, Sb,Hf and Ta by ICP-MS

We examined the coprecipitation behavior of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides under two different fluoride forming conditions: at < 70 °C in an ultrasonic bath (denoted as the ultrasonic method) and at 245 °C using a Teflon bomb (denoted as the bomb method). In the ultrasonic method, small amounts of Ti, Mo and Sn coprecipitation were observed with 100% Ca and 100% Mg fluorides. No coprecipitation of Ti, Mo, Sn and Sb in Ca–Al–Mg fluorides occurred when the sample was decomposed by the bomb method except for 100% Ca fluoride. Based on our coprecipitation observations, we have developed a simultaneous determination method for B, Ti, Zr, Nb, Mo, Sn, Sb, Hf and Ta by Q-pole type ICP-MS (ICP-QMS) and sector field type ICP-MS (ICP-SFMS). 9–50 mg of samples with Zr–Mo–Sn–Sb–Hf spikes were decomposed by HF using the bomb method and the ultrasonic method with B spike. The sample was then evaporated and re-dissolved into 0.5 mol l^− 1 HF, followed by the removal of fluorides by centrifuging. B, Zr, Mo, Sn, Sb and Hf were measured by ID method. Nb and Ta were measured by the ID-internal standardization method, based on Nb/Mo and Ta/Mo ratios using ICP-QMS, for which pseudo-FI was developed and applied. When 100% recovery yields of Zr and Hf are expected, Nb/Zr and Ta/Hf ratios may also be used. Ti was determined by the ID-internal standardization method, based on the Ti/Nb ratio from ICP-SFMS. Only 0.053 ml sample solution was required for measurement of all 9 elements. Dilution factors of ≤ 340 were aspirated without matrix effects. To demonstrate the applicability of our method, 4 carbonaceous chondrites (Ivuna, Orgueil, Cold Bokkeveld and Allende) as well as GSJ and USGS silicate reference materials of basalts, andesites and peridotites were analyzed. Our analytical results are consistent with previous studies, and the mean reproducibility of each element is 1.0–4.6% for basalts and andesites, and 6.7–11% for peridotites except for TiO₂.     

Entropy,materials, and posterity

Materials and energy are the interdependent feedstocks of economic systems, and thermodynamics is their moderator. It costs energy to transform the dispersed minerals of Earth's crust into ordered materials and structures. And it costs materials to collect and focus the energy to perform work — be it from solar, fossil fuel, nuclear, or other sources. The greater the dispersal of minerals sought, the more energy is required to collect them into ordered states.But available energy can be used once only. And the ordered materials of industrial economies become disordered with time. They may be partially reordered and recycled, but only at further costs in energy. Available energy everywhere degrades to bound states and order to disorder — for though entropy may be juggled it always increases. Yet industry is utterly dependent on low entropy states of matter and energy, while decreasing grades of ore require ever higher inputs of energy to convert them to metals, with ever increasing growth both of entropy and environmental hazard.Except as we may prize a thing for its intrinsic qualities — beauty, leisure, love, or gold — low-entropy is the only thing of real value. It is worth whatever the market will bear, and it becomes more valuable as entropy increases. It would be foolish of suppliers to sell it more cheaply or in larger amounts than their own enjoyment of life requires, whatever form it may take. For this reason, and because of physical constraints on the availability of all low-entropy states, the recent energy crises is only the first of a sequence of crises to be expected in energy and materials as long as current trends continue.The apportioning of low-entropy states in a modern industrial society is achieved more or less according to the theory of competitive markets. But the rational powers of this theory suffer as the world grows increasingly polarized into rich, over-industrialized nations with diminishing resource bases and poor, supplier nations with little industry. The theory also discounts posterity, the more so as population density and percapita rates of consumption continue to grow. A new social, economic, and ecologic norm that leads to population control, conservation, and an apportionment of low-entropy states across the generations is needed to assure to posterity the options that properly belong to it as an important but voiceless constituency of the collectivity we call mankind.

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Zusammenfassung Rohstoffe und Energie sind die Grundlagen unseres ökonomischen Systems, das von den Gesetzen der Thermodynamik bestimmt wird. Es kostet Energie, um die auf der Erde verteilten Rohstoffe diesem System zuzuführen. Andererseits braucht man Rohstoffe, um die Energie nutzbar zu machen.Die verfügbare Energie kann nur einmal genutzt werden und das Material verbraucht sich. Verbrauchtes Material kann teilweise zur weiteren Nutzung zurückgeführt werden, das kostet wiederum Energie. Die verfügbare Energie nimmt überall ab, und einmal geschaffene Ordnung gerät wieder in Unordnung — das heißt, die Entropie des Systems nimmt ständig zu. Die Industrie ist jedoch abhängig von einem niedrigen Entropiezustand sowohl der Materie als auch der Energie.Je ärmer die Erze sind, um so höher wird die Energie sein, um sie in Metalle umzuwandeln, wobei die Entropie und die Belastung der Umwelt ständig zunimmt.Außer den Dingen, die wir wegen höherer ideeller Werte schätzen, ist eine niedrige Entropie der einzige realistische Wertmaßstab, und der wirkliche Wertzuwachs ist nur an einer höheren Entropie zu messen. Es ist unverantwortlich, Dinge, die eine höhere Entropie bedingen, billiger zu verkaufen oder in größerer Menge zu erzeugen, als unbedingt notwendig ist. Da wir dies heute in unserem Handeln nicht berücksichtigen, ist die derzeitige Energiekrise nur der Anfang einer Folge von Krisen, die Energie und Rohstoffe betreffen, solange wir nicht umdenken.Die Verteilung von niedriger Entropie in einer modernen Industriegesellschaft wird mehr oder weniger nach dem Prinzip der konkurrierenden Märkte erreicht. Das selbstregulierende System gerät jedoch mit zunehmender Polarisierung in reiche Industrienationen mit abnehmenden Ressourcen und armen Nationen mit geringer Industrialisierung in Unordnung. Dieses Prinzip berücksichtigt auch nicht die Nachwelt, vor allem wenn die Bevölkerungsdichte stetig zunimmt und die Konsumbedürfnisse anwachsen. Es sind neue soziale, ökonomische und ökologische Normen notwendig, die zur Populationskontrolle, zur Erhaltung der Umwelt und zu einem Zustand niedriger Entropie für zukünftige Generationen führen. Die nach uns kommenden Menschen haben ein Anrecht darauf.

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Résumé Matériaux et énergie sont les sources des systèmes économiques et sont régis par les lois de la thermodynamique. Il faut de l'énergie pour transformer les ressources minérales dispersées dans la croûte terrestre en matériaux et structures ordonnancées. Et il faut des matériaux pour receuillir et concentrer l'énergie, qu'elle soit solaire ou atomique, ou provienne de combustibles fossiles ou d'autres sources. Plus les minéraux recherchés sont dispersés et plus est côuteuse l'énergie pour leur donner une ordonnance.Or l'énergie disponsible ne peut être utilisée qu'une seule fois. Et les matériaux ordonnancés des économies industrielles se dégradent avec le temps. Ils peuvent être remis partiellement en état et recyclés, mais pour cela il faut de nouveau de l'énergie. Partout l'énergie disponible se dégrade et l'ordre devient désordre; -malgré toutes les jongleries possibles l'entropie augmente toujours.L'industrie dépend clairement d'états de basse entropie tant en ce qui concerne les matériaux que l'énergie, tandis que plus pauvres sont les minerais, plus; élevée est l'énergie à mettre en jeu pour en extraire les métaux, avec toujours augmentation à la fois de l'entropie et de la degradation des milieux.A l'exception de ce que nous apprécions pour leur valeur intrinsèque — la beauté, le loisir, l'amour ou l'or — la basse entropie est la seule chose de réelle valeur. Son prix est réglé par le marché, et sa valeur augmente au fur et à mesure que l'entropie s'accroît. Ceux qui en disposent seraient insensés de la vendre à bas prix ou en quantité supérieure à ce qu'exige leur propre niveau de vie. Pour cette raison, et à cause des contraintes physiques liées à la disponibilité en états de basse entropie, la récente crise d'énergie n'est, en ce qui concerne les matières premières et l'énergie, que la première d'une série de crises auxquelles il faut s'attendre aussi longtemps que se poursoit la marche actuelle des étènements.Dans les sociétés industrielles modernes, les approvisionnement en basse entropie s'effectuent plus ou moins conformément à la théorie de la concurrence des marchés. Cependant la rationalité de cette théorie se ressent de l'accentuation croissante de la polarisation, à l'échelle du monde, en nations riches, surindustrialisées, à ressources de base décroissantes, et en nations pauvres, sous-industrialisées, mais fournisseurs de resources-naturelles. De plus cette théorie ne tient pas compte de notre postérité, et ce, en face d'une densité de population et d'un taux de la consommation par tête d'habitant en augmentation continue.Nous avons donc besoin de nouvelles normes sociales, économiques et écologiques qui conduisent au contrôle de la population, à la conservation et à la répartition des états de basse entropie à travers les générations pour assurer à notre postérité les options qui leur riviennent de droit comme une constituante importante, mais encore muette, de la collectivité que nous appelons l'Humanité.

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Dedicated with appreciation to Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen, distinguished economist, realist among cornucopians     

Models,validation, and applied geochemistry: Issues in science,communication, and philosophy

Models have become so fashionable that many scientists and engineers cannot imagine working without them. The predominant use of computer codes to execute model calculations has blurred the distinction between code and model. The recent controversy regarding model validation has brought into question what we mean by a ‘model’ and by ‘validation.’ It has become apparent that the usual meaning of validation may be common in engineering practice and seems useful in legal practice but it is contrary to scientific practice and brings into question our understanding of science and how it can best be applied to such problems as hazardous waste characterization, remediation, and aqueous geochemistry in general. This review summarizes arguments against using the phrase model validation and examines efforts to validate models for high-level radioactive waste management and for permitting and monitoring open-pit mines. Part of the controversy comes from a misunderstanding of ‘prediction’ and the need to distinguish logical from temporal prediction. Another problem stems from the difference in the engineering approach contrasted with the scientific approach. The reductionist influence on the way we approach environmental investigations also limits our ability to model the interconnected nature of reality. Guidelines are proposed to improve our perceptions and proper utilization of models. Use of the word ‘validation’ is strongly discouraged when discussing model reliability.     

Pools,riffles, and channelization

The addition of regularly spaced deeps (pools) and shallows (riffles) that provide a variety of flow conditions, areal sorting of stream-bed material, cover for wildlife, and a positive aesthetic experience, may be desirable in many channel projects. Such designs will reduce adverse environmental impacts of stream channel modifications. Analysis of variance for pool-to-pool spacing data suggests that there is no significant difference with respect to channel width between pools that form in natural streams and those in streams affected by a variety of human uses. Short of channelization, which changes the channel width, pools and riffles, within limits, are not particularly sensitive to environmental stress. Experiments in Gum Branch near Charlotte, North Carolina, support the hypothesis that channel form and process evolve in harmony and that manipulation of cross-channel morphology can influence the development of desired channel processes. Planned manipulation of its channel form induced Gum Branch to develop as desired. Morphologic stability consisting of incipient point bars, pools, and riffles was maintained over a period of high magnitude flood events, only to be degraded later by a wave of sediment derived from upstream construction and stream-bank failures. Thus, environmentally desirable channel morphology in urban streams cannot remain stable if changes in the sediment load or storm-water runoff exceed the limits of the stream's ability to make internal adjustments while maintaining morphologic stability.