Perspectives on prehistoric and recent gullying in Central Zimbabwe

Gullies up to 5 m deep are developed on sodic soils near St. Michael's Mission, central Zimbabwe, A preliminary study was undertaken to reconstruct the nature and timing of past gullying, and to determine the main factors affecting gully growth during the last 50 years. The gullies are formed in colluvium, with interbedded humic layers and stonelines containing stone artefacts, reflecting cycles of gully entrenchment, sheetwash and pedogenesis which occurred during the Late Quaternary. Significantly, historical and present day gully growth appears to be both more extensive and intensive than at any earlier period in the Late Quaternary. Recent gully growth appears to be a function of complex interaction of physical and anthropogenic factors. Attempts to arrest gully headward extension are discussed. It is argued that long and medium term perspectives on gully erosion, combined with present day observations, offer a more balanced view of the soil erosion problem.     

Influence of bare soil and cultivated land use types upstream of a bank gully on soil erosion rates and energy consumption for different gully erosion zones in the dry-hot valley region,Southwest China

This study assessed temporal variation in soil erosion rates in response to energy consumption of flow (ΔE). It employed an in situ bank gully field flume experiment with upstream catchment areas with bare (BLG) or cultivated land (CLG) that drained down to bare gully headcuts. Water discharge treatments ranged from 30 to 120 L Min⁻¹. Concentrated flow discharge clearly affected bank gully soil erosion rates. Excluding minimal discharge in the CLG upstream catchment area (30 L min⁻¹), a declining power function trend (p ≤ 0.1) was observed with time in soil erosion rates for both BLG and CLG upstream catchment areas and downstream gully beds. Non-steady state soil erosion rates were observed after an abrupt collapse along the headcut slope after prolonged scouring treatments. However, as the experiment progressed, ΔE and energy consumption of flow per unit soil loss (ΔEu) exhibited a logarithmic growth trend (p < 0.1) at each BLG and CLG position. Although similar temporal trends in soil erosion and infiltration rates were observed, values clearly differed between BLG and CLG upstream catchment areas. Furthermore, Darcy–Weisbach friction factor (f) values in the CLG upstream catchment area were higher than the corresponding BLG area. In contrast to the BLG upstream catchment area, lower ΔEu and higher soil erosion rates were observed in the CLG upstream catchment area as a result of soil disturbances. This indicated that intensive land use changes accelerate soil erosion rates in upstream catchment areas of bank gullies and increase soil sediment transport to downstream gullies. Accordingly, reducing tillage disturbances and increasing vegetation cover in upstream catchment areas of bank gullies are essential in the dry-hot valley region of Southwest China.

     

浅埋煤层过双沟地形开采地表裂缝发育规律

为保护黄河流域矿区生态环境,以府谷县庙哈孤矿区安山煤矿125203工作面为背景,采用数值模拟实验、相似材料模拟实验和理论分析相结合的手段,基于工作面过双沟地形开采时地表裂缝发育位置、发育形态等参数,总结出开采诱发地表裂缝发育规律。通过理论分析,建立了浅埋煤层过双沟地形开采地表裂缝发育相对位置函数T及其判别条件,讨论了双沟地形沟谷参数与地表裂缝发育相对位置之间的关系。研究表明,工作面过支沟G1时,共发育地表裂缝4条,最大裂缝宽度23 cm,最大错台11 cm,裂缝发育超前于工作面推进;过主沟G2时共发育地表裂缝7条,最大裂缝宽度79 cm,最大错台45 cm,裂缝发育滞后于工作面推进。裂缝发育相对位置受地质条件、沟深、坡度和沟谷跨度等因素共同影响。地表裂缝发育相对位置函数与裂缝超前(滞后)距离、裂缝宽度和错台以及单沟裂缝总条数密切相关。双沟相互影响程度与工作面推进方向有关。研究结果可为浅埋煤层沟谷下开采地表裂缝发育研究提供一定的理论依据。      

Gully erosion as a natural hazard: the educational role of geotourism

Gully erosion is one of the greatest natural hazards in the loess areas of E. (Eastern) Poland. At the same time, permanent gullies are a major tourist attraction and can provide a basis for the development of geotourism. The study objective was to assess the possibilities of using the loess gullies for educational purposes. Detailed studies were conducted within the municipality of Kazimierz Dolny, an area with an extremely high concentration of permanent gullies. The questionnaire survey of students and tourists (nearly 300 surveys were completed) showed that the respondents’ knowledge of geomorphology was limited, despite their familiarity with gullies. In most cases, they were unable to accurately identify the determinants of gully erosion, its negative effects and methods for preventing it. An assessment of the tourism and geotourism potential of the municipality made it possible to identify the sites (gullies) that can perform an educational function, with regard to gully erosion. The establishment of the Ma?opolska Vistula Gap Geopark, whose highlights will include numerous loess gullies, can pave the way for the development of geotourism.     

Gully development in eastern Romania: a case study from Falciu Hills

The gullied systems from the Falciu Hills within the Chioara catchment (2997 ha) consist of both main types of gullies, discontinuous and large continuous ones along valley bottoms, and lots of ephemeral gullies. Several methods have been used to measure and estimate gully characteristics. Then, the gully development stages, the effect of the natural conditions, and especially the impact of land management on gullying in the Falciu Hills over the last two centuries have been defined. In addition, the role of gully erosion in triggering landslides has also been studied. Two main periods have been distinguished (until 1960 and 1961–2012) for assessing major characteristics of land degradation. The results show that total gully area in the Chioara catchment is 66.4 ha excepting for the ephemeral gullies, and areas occupied by gullies from the five study sub-catchments (2334 ha) account for two-thirds. Total length of the main gully network in the entire catchment is 33.2 km from which the five sub-catchments account for 71 %. The mean gully density of 1.11 km km⁻² supports the evidence that here gullying is the major environmental threat. Half of the gully areal growth and three-quarters of the new landslide area occurred over the 1961–2012 period. Delayed deforestation peaking during 1830–1930 and land conversion to arable use resulted in severe soil erosion, high aggradation along the non-gullied valley bottoms, and severe gullying. The average gully head retreat rate over the last two centuries from four trunk continuous gullies is 14 m year⁻¹, and the sediment yield from gullying only accounted for 54–69 % of the sediment mass produced by water erosion. The evolution of gullies is linked to major land-use changes in the study area. Despite a decreasing tendency of gullying and catchment area over the last half century, gullying still remains problematically high in East Romania.

     

Gully erosion as a natural hazard: the educational role of geotourism

Gully erosion is one of the greatest natural hazards in the loess areas of E. (Eastern) Poland. At the same time, permanent gullies are a major tourist attraction and can provide a basis for the development of geotourism. The study objective was to assess the possibilities of using the loess gullies for educational purposes. Detailed studies were conducted within the municipality of Kazimierz Dolny, an area with an extremely high concentration of permanent gullies. The questionnaire survey of students and tourists (nearly 300 surveys were completed) showed that the respondents’ knowledge of geomorphology was limited, despite their familiarity with gullies. In most cases, they were unable to accurately identify the determinants of gully erosion, its negative effects and methods for preventing it. An assessment of the tourism and geotourism potential of the municipality made it possible to identify the sites (gullies) that can perform an educational function, with regard to gully erosion. The establishment of the Małopolska Vistula Gap Geopark, whose highlights will include numerous loess gullies, can pave the way for the development of geotourism.

     

四川西昌“3·30”火烧区响水沟火后泥石流成灾机理

2020年3月30日,西昌市经久乡发生森林大火,响水沟流域植被被林火大面积烧毁,同年雨季,响水沟流域内多条沟道暴发泥石流,其中1#、2#、3#沟毗邻居民房屋和耕地,影响较为严重。通过野外调查、遥感解译和室外试验,以响水沟1#、2#、3#沟为研究对象,分析了不同林火烈度下,渗透特征、坡面侵蚀和沟道侵蚀的差异,从而揭示响水沟火后泥石流的成灾机理。结果表明,林火是泥石流暴发的重要诱因,火后泥石流的降雨阈值会明显降低。林火干扰导致坡面土壤的渗透系数表现出不同程度的降低,林火烈度越严重的区域,渗透系数越小,降雨更大比例地转化为坡面径流参与到坡面侵蚀。随降雨次数的增多,轻度、中度、重度火烧区域的坡面土壤侵蚀深度均增加;中度、重度林火烈度的侵蚀深度差异不大,且明显高于轻度区域,说明当林火烈度达到中度时,坡面土壤便会受到较大程度的侵蚀。地形条件相似的沟道,林火烈度越严重,泥石流侵蚀能力越强,最终体现于沟道两岸崩滑体数量越多,沟道宽度和深度越大。     

四川汉源康家坡滑坡形成机理与滑坡—堰塞坝—泥石流灾害链分析

2018年8月6日中午12时,汉源县富泉镇西沟发生大规模滑坡,约1.50×10~6 m~3松散碎块石土在前期持续降雨作用下沿西沟右岸高速滑出、解体,并在主沟道内形成堰塞坝,体积约4.00×10~5 m~3。滑坡造成1人失踪,近6.70×10~3 m~2耕地被毁,紧急转移50余人。通过现场实地调查,结合无人机航飞、三维建模、地质、地震、水文、气象等资料,对康家坡滑坡基本特征进行了调查研究,调查表明,有利的地形条件、松散的覆盖层、充沛的前期降雨入渗及溪水对坡脚的冲刷是形成滑坡的主要原因。西沟原本为一条高频泥石流沟,本文在此基础上分析了堰塞坝溃坝的可能性及灾害链成灾模式。     

Morphological characteristics of gully networks and their relationship to host materials,Baringo District,Kenya

The morphological characteristics of gully networks in Baringo District, Kenya are described in relation to host materials. All gullies studied were part of a well integrated network characterised by a high drainage density. Causes of network rejuvenation leading to gullying are postulated. The morphology of the individual gullies were found to be related to the most material. Gullies formed on weathered bedrock had a dendritic drainage network with convex slopes. The morphology of gullies developed in lacustrine sediments varied with sediment texture and chemistry. V-shaped dendritic gullies with a concave longitudinal profile were associated with a high clay content and high sodium content whereas entrenched gullies were associated with a high silt content and low sodium content. Process inferences are made in order to explain the variation in gully morphology.     

A simple DEM assessment procedure for gully system analysis in the Lake Manyara area,northern Tanzania

Gully erosion is a major threat concerning landscape degradation in large areas along the northern Tanzanian Rift valley. It is the dominant erosion process producing large parts of the sediments that are effectively conducted into the river network. The study area is located in the Lake Manyara—Makuyuni River catchment, Arusha, northern Tanzania. During fieldwork, we measured topographic data of eight gully systems close to Makuyuni Town. The main focus of this study is to assess gully erosion dynamics using improved DEMs with original resolutions of 30 and 20 m, respectively. We assessed terrain characteristics to extract information on environmental drivers. To improve the DEM, we integrated information deduced from satellite images as well as from acquired GPS field data. Topographic indices such as Stream Power Index or Transport Capacity Index were derived from the re-interpolated DEM. To evaluate gully evolution, we assessed also the longitudinal slope profiles. Finally, the gully evolution phases of each gully were classified according to the concept proposed by Kosov et al. (Eksperimental’naya geomorfologiya, vol 3. Moscow University, Moskva, pp 113–140, 1978). The re-interpolated DEMs revealed a positive response especially for the more developed gullies. We show that the extraction of information on this spatial process scale based on “low-resolution” data is feasible with little additional fieldwork and image interpretation. In fact, areas identified as having a greater risk of gully erosion have been confirmed by observations and surveys carried out in the field.     

Modelling of piping collapses and gully headcut landforms:Evaluating topographic variables from different types of DEM

The geomorphic studies are extremely dependent on the quality and spatial resolution of digital elevation model(DEM)data.The unique terrain characteristics of a particular landscape are derived from DEM,which are responsible for initiation and development of ephemeral gullies.As the topographic features of an area significantly influences on the erosive power of the water flow,it is an important task the extraction of terrain features from DEM to properly research gully erosion.Alongside,topography is highly correlated with other geo-environmental factors i.e.geology,climate,soil types,vegetation density and floristic composition,runoff generation,which ultimately influences on gully occurrences.Therefore,terrain morphometric attributes derived from DEM data are used in spatial prediction of gully erosion susceptibility(GES)mapping.In this study,remote sensing-Geographic information system(GIS)tech-niques coupled with machine learning(ML)methods has been used for GES mapping in the parts of Semnan province,Iran.Current research focuses on the comparison of predicted GES result by using three types of DEM i.e.Advanced Land Observation satellite(ALOS),ALOS World 3D-30 m(AW3D30)and Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer(ASTER)in different resolutions.For further progress of our research work,here we have used thirteen suitable geo-environmental gully erosion conditioning factors(GECFs)based on the multi-collinearity analysis.ML methods of conditional inference forests(Cforest),Cubist model and Elastic net model have been chosen for modelling GES accordingly.Variable's importance of GECFs was measured through sensitivity analysis and result show that elevation is the most important factor for occurrences of gullies in the three aforementioned ML methods(Cforest=21.4,Cubist=19.65 and Elastic net=17.08),followed by lithology and slope.Validation of the model's result was performed through area under curve(AUC)and other statistical indices.The validation result of AUC has shown that Cforest is the most appropriate model for predicting the GES assessment in three different DEMs(AUC value of Cforest in ALOS DEM is 0.994,AW3D30 DEM is 0.989 and ASTER DEM is 0.982)used in this study,followed by elastic net and cubist model.The output result of GES maps will be used by decision-makers for sustainable development of degraded land in this study area.     

Effects of gully erosion and gully filling on soil depth and crop production in the black soil region, northeast China

Gully erosion is a very serious problem in the black soil region of northeast China. Gully filling is often adopted for controlling gully erosion by local farmers and thus causes more serious soil erosion. In this study an ephemeral gully (EG, 74 m) and a classical gully (CG, 52 m) connected at the gully’s headcut were selected as the study site. Two comparisons were made to explore the effects of gully erosion and the subsequent gully filling on soil depth and soybean yield: (1) soil depth between 81 sample points in the study site and 11 reference points along the same slope with the gully; (2) soybean yield between 81 sample points in the study site and 30 baseline locations near the study site. The results indicated that gully erosion caused the reduction of soil depth and soybean yield. Although filling gullies with soil from adjacent areas seemed to be an expedient way to remediate the gullies, it resulted in substantial soybean yield reduction. Gully erosion reduced the soil depth and soybean yield in 74.4 and 83.9 % of the study site, respectively. The soybean yield reduction ratio was 34.5 % for the whole study site and 2.6 % for the black soil region. Soil depth was the most important soil property indicator to reduce yield. Every 1 cm decrease in soil depth in the areas adjacent to gullies due to infilling activities resulted in a 2 % decrease in yield. More significant was the deposition of sediment from gully erosion, which completely eliminated soybean yield. Currently, effective soil and water conservation measures are not known and adopted by local farmers extensively. In the future, once some measures for preventing soil erosion, in particular gully erosion, were proved effective, these technologies should be disseminated among local farmers.     

甘肃河西地区泥石流沟分布特征与易发性评估研究

根据汇水面积、松散物质储量、沟坡坡度、主沟纵坡降等4项泥石流沟易发性判断特征指标,利用数理统计方法,对甘肃省河西地区20个县、区、市的587条泥石流沟现状进行了分析研究. 结果表明：河西地区泥石流多发育在南北山地的前山走廊地带,泥石流沟分布密度稀疏,属于泥石流稀疏地区. 在泥石流沟易发性主要特征指标方面,研究区汇水面积指标处于偏轻微程度,松散物质储量指标处于中等程度,沟坡坡度指标处于严重程度,主沟纵坡降指标处于中等以下程度. 在泥石流沟易发性评价结果方面区域总体属于泥石流地质灾害低易发-中易发区域. 在全球气候变暖的背景下,研究区内强降水情况发生频率呈现增强趋势,应积极开展极端天气影响下河西地区泥石流发展趋势和干旱、半干旱地区植被特征与泥石流易发性之间的相关关系研究.     

崩岗地貌发育的土体物理性质及其土壤侵蚀意义——以广东五华县莲塘岗崩岗为例

崩岗集中发育在我国广东、福建等东南7省(自治区),面积约5万km2,是华南地区土壤侵蚀最严重的区域.崩岗是水力—重力复合侵蚀交替作用的产物,也是沟谷侵蚀发展的结果.崩岗主要发育在花岗岩厚层风化壳上,崩岗土体以高黏粒、低砾石含量的粗砂土为基本特征.崩岗崩积锥土体粒径自坡顶至坡脚由粗变细,反映出坡面流水的侵蚀和搬运过程.崩岗土体可蚀性强,可蚀性因子K值平均为0.26,比花岗岩红壤地区的平均K值高0.03 ～ 0.05.崩积锥坡脚K值大于坡顶,即坡脚可蚀性大于坡顶.崩岗崩壁和崩积锥土体的平均黏粒含量为10.13％,大于5％这一泥石流形成的必要条件.崩岗流域地形陡峻,一旦遭遇强降雨,有条件转化成“泥石流”.崩岗形成的“泥石流”平均中值粒径仅为常规泥石流的1/12,砾石含量仅为1/4.因此,崩岗型泥石流(即由崩岗转化成的“泥石流”)并不是通常意义上的泥石流,是广义泥石流大类中的一个新种——泥砂流.     

沟床起动型泥石流的10 min降雨预报模型

针对沟床起动型泥石流的诱发因素为高强度短历时的降雨,提出10 min降雨强度是这类泥石流暴发的关键。在1 h预报模型的基础上,基于云南蒋家沟的多年泥石流观测资料,修正了1 h预报模型的降雨参数,并得到了10 min降雨预报模型。10 min降雨预报模型在中国西部的其他流域,如云南浑水沟、贵州望谟县打易区域泥石流沟、四川三滩沟、四川雅安陆王沟和干溪沟、甘肃柳湾沟、甘肃马槽沟等流域的验证中,取得了较好的结果。10 min降雨预报模型是部分建立在泥石流的形成机理上的模型,并不是完全的统计模型,因此该模型也可以用于其他地区的沟床起动类型泥石流预报。     

Soil loss estimation by field measurements in the badlands along Pravara river (Western India)

Nearly 4 million hectares of land in India is affected by rill and gully erosion. It is a severe form of soil erosion rendering vast tracts of lands into wastelands giving rise to the formation of badlands. Rate of land degradation through gullying is triggered recently due to the ill-advised landuse practices all over the country. The study area represents one such badland locality along the banks of Pravara river and two of its tributaries in the Deccan trap region, Maharashtra. The area is extensively reclaimed in the last two decades for agricultural practices. The rates in the cross profile changes as well as land lowering were measured with the help of a self fabricated micro-profilometer and erosion pin method. Five first order gullies were monitored using the micro-profilometer. Results of the micro-profilometer technique reveal considerable changes in the cross-sectional areas of individual gullies in this area, which shows the dynamic soil removal mechanism operating in this region. In addition to this, two well developed gully catchments were surveyed using a theodolite and erosion pins were installed in these basins in May 2007. After one year, the exposed pinheads were measured and net gain and net loss in the volume of the sediments were calculated for both the basins. The same practice continued in May 2009. After two years of monitoring the sediment yields were calculated. Average of these two years indicates an annual sediment yield of 1.79 kg/m² for sample basin 1 and 0.76 kg/m² for sample basin 2. The calculated yield was compared with the threshold values of soil tolerance limits and it was found that the area has crossed the threshold limit of soil tolerance.     

The morphological characteristics of gully systems and watersheds in Dry-Hot Valley,SW China

Gully systems and watersheds are geomorphic units with clear boundaries that are relatively independent of basin landscapes and play an important role in natural geography. In order to explore the morphological characteristics of gully systems and watersheds in the Dry-Hot Valley [South West (SW) China], gullies are interpreted from online Google images with high resolution and watersheds are extracted from digital elevation model at a scale of 1:50,000. The results show that: (1) There are 17,382 gullies (with a total area of 1141.66 km²) and 42 watersheds in the study area. (2) The average gully density of the study area (D) is 4.29 km/km², gully frequency (F) is 14.39 gullies/km², the branching ratio (B) is 5.13, the length ratio (L) is 3.12, and the coefficient of the main and tributary gullies (M) is 0.06. The degree of gully erosion is strong to extremely strong, the main development intensity of gully erosion ranges from intense to moderate, and the type of gully system is tributary. (3) The watershed areas (A) are between 0.39 and 96.43 km², the relief ratio (R) is from 0.10 to 0.19, the circularity ratio (C) is from 0.30 to 0.83, the texture ratio (T) is from 0.82 to 39.35, and the dominant geomorphological texture type is fine. (4) There is a quantitative relationship between F and D:F?=?0.624D² (R?=0.84) and T is closely related to D, F, M (R²?>?0.7). A, R and C are related to M (R²?>?0.5). The development of gully systems is the result of coupling effects between multiple factors. In this area, the degree of erosion and the condition of the main and tributary gullies can be controlled by the degree of topographic breakage in the watershed, which provides some theoretical basis for the evaluation of gully erosion by the latter. In addition, the scale, relief, and shape have a significant impact on the locations of the main and tributary gullies. For tributary gullies, attention should be paid to the interception and control of runoff and sediment in the small confluence branches in order to prevent gully expansion and head advance. These features can inform the development of targeted measures for the control of soil erosion.     

A formation model for debris flows in the Chenyulan River Watershed, Taiwan

Many debris flows were triggered in the Chenyulan River Watershed in Taiwan in a rainstorm caused by the Typhoon Toraji. There are 117 gullies with a significant steep topography in the catchment. During this Typhoon, debris flows were initiated in 43 of these gullies, while in 34 gullies, it was not certain whether they have occurred. High-intensity short-duration rainfall was the main triggering factor for these gully type debris flows which are probably entrained by a “fire hose” mechanism. Previous research identified 47 factors related to topography, geology, and hydrology, which may play a role in the formation of gully type debris flows. For a better understanding of the probability of the formation of debris flows, it is proposed to represent the factors related to topography, geology, and hydrology by one single factor. In addition to the existing topographic and geological factor, a normalized critical rainfall factor is suggested with an effective cumulative precipitation and a maximum hourly rainfall intensity. In this paper, a formation model for debris flows is proposed, which combines these topographic, geological, and hydraulic factors. A relationship of these factors with a triggering threshold is proposed. The model produces a good assessment of the probability of occurrence of debris flows in the study area. The model may be used for the prediction of debris flows in other areas because it is mostly based on the initiation mechanisms and not only on the statistical analyses of a unique variety of local factors. The research provides a new and exciting way to study the occurrence of debris flows initiated by a “fire hose” mechanism.     

Episodic gullying and paleomonsoon cycles on the Chinese Loess Plateau

Buried gullies exposed in road excavations along the margin of a loess tableland on the Loess Plateau of central China lie within a thick loess-paleosol succession that spans ≥780,000 years. Constraining ages for gully cutting and filling are provided by dates of loess and soil units cut by and capping the paleogullies. An episode of gully cutting begins at the onset of an interglaciation and ceases as the gullies begin to fill with colluvium and airborne dust during the transition to full-glacial conditions. The episodic cutting and filling of gullies implies a basic astronomical (orbital) control of gully evolution involving cyclic changes in dominant summer and winter monsoon climates, surface hydrology, and vegetation cover.     

坡面不同侵蚀沟断面特征及水力几何形态

通过整理和分析国内外大量野外调查数据,系统研究了裸露坡耕地壤土土质不同侵蚀沟的断面特征和水力几何形态,并给出了相应的判别标准。结果表明:随坡面侵蚀沟逐步发展,宽深比参数ζ逐渐减小,细沟、浅沟、切沟和冲沟适宜的ζ范围分别为5~17、2~5、0.4~1.8和0.1~0.6;同一侵蚀沟条件下,壤土类型对ζ值也有影响。土壤质地越细,ζ值越小。不同侵蚀沟水力几何形态指数也不相同,细沟的形态指数β₁、β₂和β₃分别为0.3、0.4和0.3,浅沟和切沟为0.4、0.4和0.2,冲沟为0.5、0.4和0.1。验证结果表明给出的判别标准可以用来界定不同侵蚀沟类型。