Multiproxy surface wetness records from replicate cores on an ombrotrophic mire: implications for Holocene palaeoclimate records

Ombrotrophic mires can provide records of palaeoclimate over the mid- to late- Holocene in several areas of the world. Their potential is currently partly limited by difficulties with scaling indices based on plant macrofossils and humification, and the need to account for the internal variability of the mire system. This paper explores the use of testate amoebae analysis as a third technique and assesses the minimum within-site variability by comparing results from two closely spaced cores. Reconstruction of surface wetness changes was carried out on cores from the centre of an intermediate raised-blanket mire, Coom Rigg Moss, Northumberland, by analysis of testate amoebae, plant macrofossils and humification. Surface wetness changes were expressed as mean annual water table changes inferred from testate amoebae assemblages, two separate indices based on plant macrofossils and percentage transmission of humification extracts. Comparisons between the proxies suggest good agreement of general trends in Sphagnum peats but some differences in monocot and ericaceous peats. The magnitude of surface wetness changes also differs within Sphagnum peats. The records from the separate cores converge over time and replicability between cores is best in the last 1000 yr. Changes over this period are similar to those shown by estimates based on documentary sources. Good agreement is obtained between a normalised plant macrofossil index and normalised reconstructed water-table values and it is suggested that this approach could form the basis for improved composite, multiproxy records from peatlands. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ostracod stable isotope records from a deglacial isolation sequence in southern Sweden

A Late Weichselian sediment succession from the Kullen Peninsula, southern Sweden, was studied by means of stable carbon and oxygen isotope analyses of calcitic valves of selected ostracod taxa. The lower part of the record was deposited in a slightly brackish marginal sea close to the receding inland ice, whereas the upper part is lacustrine in origin as a result of glacio-isostatic rebound. The site was deglaciated at c. 17 200 cal BP (c. 14 500 ¹⁴C BP) within the earliest ice-free area of Sweden, and the isolation took place c. 1100 cal years later. As a result of extensive input of glacial meltwater to the near-shore, shallow basin, the isotopic records predating the isolation give no clear indications of marine conditions. However, the isolation of the lake from the marginal sea is reflected by a distinct depletion of ¹⁸O in ostracod calcite as a response to the changing isotope hydrology of the basin. The change towards a lacustrine environment also fostered a decrease in the input of minerogenic material and a related increase in organic carbon content of the sediments, which may explain a short-lasting depletion of ¹³C in dissolved inorganic carbon and ostracod calcite. During the period of c. 14 700-13 900 cal BP a pronounced warming occurred associated with the onset of the Late Weichselian interstadial complex (Greenland Interstadial 1). Based on a distinct enrichment of ¹⁸O in ostracod calcite and applying modern spatial relations between δ¹⁸O of precipitation and temperature, this climatic shift involved an increase in mean annual air temperature in southernmost Sweden of at least 7°C.     

Seasonal controls on sediment transport and deposition in Lake Ohau,South Island,New Zealand: Implications for a high‐resolution Holocene palaeoclimate reconstruction

Laminated sediments in Lake Ohau, Mackenzie Basin, New Zealand, offer a potential high‐resolution climate record for the past 17 kyr. Such records are particularly important due to the relative paucity of detailed palaeoclimate data from the Southern Hemisphere mid‐latitudes. This paper presents outcomes of a study of the sedimentation processes of this temperate lake setting. Hydrometeorological, limnological and sedimentological data were collected over a 14 month period between 2011 and 2013. These data indicate that seasonality in the hydrometeorological system in combination with internal lake dynamics drives a distinct seasonal pattern of sediment dispersal and deposition on a basin‐wide scale. Sedimentary layers that accumulate proximal to the lake inflow at the northern end of the lake form in response to discrete inflow events throughout the year and display an event stratigraphy. In contrast, seasonal change in the lake system controls accumulation of light (winter) and dark (summer) laminations at the distal end of the lake, resulting in the preservation of varves. This study documents the key processes influencing sediment deposition throughout Lake Ohau and provides fundamental data for generating a high‐resolution palaeoclimate record from this temperate lake.     

华夏地块新元古代沉积记录与超大陆重建

新元古代-早古生代,Rodinia超大陆裂解至Gondwana大陆聚合的过程对华南构造格局与古地理演化具有重要的制约作用,然而在这过程中华夏地块的位置、华夏与扬子之间的关系等问题仍存在争议。本文通过同位素地层年代学、新元古代冰期事件及成矿事件对比了华夏地块武夷南部-南岭地区及华夏西缘新元古代中-晚期地层。在此基础上,对新元古代沉积物进行碎屑锆石物源分析,发现华夏西缘拉伸纪晚期-埃迪卡拉纪曾出现多次物源方向的转换,并在成冰纪晚期同时出现来自华南内部和外部的双向物源。结合浅海陆棚的沉积环境,表明此时扬子与华夏之间并没有宽阔的大洋相隔。华夏地块拉伸纪晚期-埃迪卡拉纪碎屑岩中包含了大量中元古代至新元古代早期的碎屑锆石,与东冈瓦纳北部印度、东南极等地区的沉积记录吻合,指示华夏地块至少自750 Ma时期就接收到来自印度北缘的碎屑物质。在Rodinia超大陆裂解至Gondwana大陆聚合期间,华南一直保持在超大陆边缘的古地理位置,与印度北缘相连。

     

The Younger Dryas glaciation in the southeastern Monadhliath Mountains,Scotland: glacier reconstruction and palaeoclimate implications

Geomorphological mapping of locally nourished glaciers was conducted in four glens in the southeastern Monadhliath Mountains, Scotland. Three glaciers are interpreted to be of Younger Dryas age based on geomorphological similarity to features in other Scottish upland areas known to have been glaciated during the Younger Dryas, and on comparison to adjacent ice‐free areas in the lower glens where landform‐sediment assemblages typically reflect peri/paraglacial readjustment during the stadial. Here we reconstruct Younger Dryas glacier termini based on moraine alignments and associated geomorphological and sedimentological evidence. An adjacent wide plateau area at high altitude may have permitted extensive ice accumulation, but no unequivocal geomorphological signature is evident. To establish upper glacier limits, a series of ice profiles are modelled. The results yield a range of realistic glacier configurations bracketed between two distinct scenarios: a valley glaciation with the glaciers' upper limit on the plateau edge, and a low‐domed icecap centred on the plateau with ice flowing radially into the lower glens. Reconstructed equilibrium‐line altitudes are 795 m a.s.l. for the valley‐glacier scenario and 894 m a.s.l. for the icecap scenario. Calculated mean ablation‐season temperatures at the ELA are 1.2°C and 0.4°C for the valley‐glacier and the icecap scenario, respectively, from which we infer mean annual precipitation rates between 323 and 520 mm a^?1. Palaeoclimate results indicate a stadial climate in central Scotland 65–79% more arid than at present, comparable to that of western Norway for the stadial and to the present‐day Canadian Arctic.     

Cosmogenic isotope and track records in meteorites and their implications to cosmic ray fluxes

Study of several cosmic ray effects, such as VH track density, spallogenic²⁶Al and⁵³Mn activity,²¹Ne and²²Ne/²¹Ne ratio, made in the same sample or in cores taken from different meteorites can identify parameters related to the exposure history of meteorites and cosmic ray flux variations. Meteorites with single or multiple exposure can be distinguished from a track production rate —²²Ne/²¹Ne correlation diagram and cosmic ray flux variations over 10⁶–10⁷ years can be deduced from a three-isotope correlation diagram of²⁶Al,⁵³Mn and²¹Ne. Isotopic data based on chondrites with simple, one-stage exposure are consistent with the same average galactic cosmic ray intensity over the past 2 million years as that during the past 10⁷ years.     

Apparent oxygen isotope equilibrium during progressive foliation development and porphyroblast growth in metapelites: implications for stable isotope and conventional thermometry

The assumption of oxygen isotope and major element equilibrium during prograde metamorphism was tested using staurolite‐grade pelitic schists that have undergone sequential porphyroblast growth and multiple episodes of recrystallization of matrix minerals and foliation development. Textural relationships are used to infer a metamorphic history that involves garnet growth followed by staurolite growth, with each porphyroblast growth event followed by at least one period of recrystallization of matrix minerals. Conventional geothermobarometry using Qtz–Grt–Pl–Ms–Bt ± St equilibria yields peak P–T conditions of c. 625 °C at 9–11 kbar, consistent with KMnFMASH petrogenetic grid predictions for stability of the assemblage Grt + St + Bt. Qtz–Grt oxygen isotope fractionations yield apparent temperatures of c. 590 °C and Qtz–St fractionations yield an apparent temperature of c. 595 °C. Diffusional modelling indicates that quartz isotopic compositions were reset by c. 30 °C via retrograde isotopic diffusional exchange with micas. The isotopic temperatures appear to be in excellent agreement with one another, and suggest oxygen isotope equilibrium was attained between garnet and staurolite at c. 625 °C. However, the agreement of Qtz–Grt and Qtz–Str isotopic temperatures is not consistent with petrographic observations (garnet grew before staurolite) and petrogenetic grid constraints that predict that garnet grows over a temperature interval of c. 525–550 °C. Given that: (i) oxygen diffusion rates in staurolite and garnet are slow enough to render an individual porphyroblast effectively closed to exchange after it forms; and (ii) matrix minerals are able to exchange isotopes via recrystallization during each period of deformation; garnet and staurolite could not have simultaneously achieved oxygen isotope equilibrium with each other or with minerals in the recrystallized matrix. Thus, the Qtz–Grt fractionations, which yield apparent temperatures that are in apparent agreement with peak metamorphic temperature and apparent temperatures for Qtz–St fractionations, cannot be fractionations resulting from equilibrium isotopic exchange. Instead, they are apparent fractionations between porphyroblasts formed at different temperature and times in the prograde P–T–D path, and quartz that recrystallized and exchanged with micas and plagioclase during several phases of deformation.     

Palaeoenvironmental records in Holocene Spanish tufas: a stable isotope approach in search of reliable climatic archives

Tufa deposits are potential terrestrial archives of palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic information. This study assesses the potential of stable isotopic archives from two closely juxtaposed Holocene tufa sites in SE Spain. The Ruidera site contains deep‐water lacustrine micrites and tufas, whereas the nearby Alcaraz site represents a shallow barrage tufa. Understanding site characteristics is critical to interpreting the stable isotopic variations. These Holocene lacustrine micrites have isotopic compositions consistent with modern European lake shore microbial carbonates, where the isotopic chemistry is strongly influenced by hydrological and residence time effects. All the lacustrine micrite δ¹³C values were influenced by microenvironmental microbial effects to some degree. Because of these effects, stable isotope data from lacustrine microbial micrites and tufas will not normally yield precise information on the isotopic composition of palaeoprecipitation, temperature or vegetation composition of an area. In contrast, Holocene tufas that formed in shallow, fast‐flowing riverine settings may contain valuable palaeoclimatic archives. The tufa deposits must be largely autochthonous, as at Alcaraz, where in situ reed stem encrustations are present. Records of relative change in air temperature and changes in the source of airmasses are potentially resolvable in the δ¹⁸O data. These interpretations can be verified by other independent climatic data where chronology is constrained. Variations in riverine tufa δ¹³C values probably record changes in local vegetation and/or soil respiration. Covariation between δ¹⁸O and δ¹³C values may be intrinsically linked to climatic factors such as aridity. Tentative palaeoclimatic interpretations for the middle Holocene at Alcaraz based on the isotope data suggest warming (or increasing influence of Mediterranean‐sourced precipitation) between approximately 5000–3000 radiocarbon years BP, accompanied by increased aridity. These interpretations are consistent with the sparse independent palaeoclimatic data and climate modelling results for the Holocene of SE Spain. This study supports the growing evidence that well‐chosen tufa sites could yield valuable palaeoclimatic information.     

Speleothem preservation and diagenesis in South African hominin sites implications for paleoenvironments and geochronology

Plio‐Pleistocene speleothems from australopithecine‐bearing caves of South Africa have the potential to yield paleoenvironmental and geochronological information using isotope geochemistry. Prior to such studies it is important to assess the preservation of geochemical signals within the calcitic and aragonitic speleothems, given the tendency of aragonitic speleothems to recrystallize to calcite. This study documents the geochemical suitability of speleothems from the principal hominin‐bearing deposits of South Africa. We use petrography, together with stable isotope and trace element analysis, to identify the occurrence of primary aragonite, primary calcite, and secondary calcite. This study highlights the presence of diagenetic alteration at many of the sites, often observed as interbedded primary and secondary fabrics. Trace element and stable isotopic values distinguish primary calcite from secondary calcite and offer insights into geochemical aspects of the past cave environment. δ¹³C values of the primary and secondary calcites range from +6 to −9‰ and δ¹⁸O values range from −4 to −6‰. The data are thus typical of meteoric calcites with highly variable δ¹³C and relatively invariant δ¹⁸O. High carbon isotope values in these deposits are associated with the effects of recrystallization and rapid outgassing of CO₂ during precipitation. Mg/Ca and Sr/Ca ratios differ between primary and secondary calcite speleothems, aiding their identification. Carbon and oxygen isotope values in primary calcite reflect the proportion of C₃ and C₄ vegetation in the local environment and the oxygen isotope composition of rainfall. Primary calcite speleothems preserve the pristine geochemical signals vital for ongoing paleoenvironmental and geochronological research. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Chaotic fault interactions: implications for seismic hazard in New Zealand

A chaotic fault interaction model previously developed for the San Andreas Fault System and the Nankai Trough (examples of transform fault and subduction dominated tectonic regimes, respectively) is here applied to the large-event seismicity in the New Zealand region, where the interacting blocks of the model are taken to be those parts of the Indo-Australian plate boundary that are, from north-east to southwest, subduction dominated, ‘transpressional’, and transform-fault dominated. The model suggests a shorter term recurrence of large events than do simple seismic cycle approaches.     

Towards a comprehensive distal andesitic tephrostratigraphic framework for New Zealand based on eruptions from Egmont volcano

The chronology and glass composition of 43 andesitic tephra layers in palaeolake sediments in northern New Zealand provide the basis for a fine‐resolution tephrostratigraphy of the interval 10–70 cal. ka. Their ages are constrained by 14 interbedded, (mostly) well‐dated rhyolitic tephra layers. The andesitic tephra have the potential to subdivide time intervals (1–5 kyr) bracketed by well known rhyolitic layers, including periods of rapid climate change such as the last glacial–interglacial transition and the Younger Dryas. The source of the distal andesitic tephra is identified as Egmont volcano (some 270 km S‐SW) on the basis of glass shard composition. The tephra contain high‐K₂O (3–6 wt%) andesitic‐dacitic (SiO₂ = 60–73 wt%) glass, with commonly heterogeneous shard populations (2–10 wt% SiO₂). Within stratigraphic intervals of < 10 kyr, individual tephra layers can be distinguished on the basis of their SiO₂ and K₂O contents, and variability in these contents can also be a distinguishing characteristic. The tephra record greatly extends the dated pyroclastic and geochemical record of Egmont volcano, and demonstrates that the volcano has frequently produced widely dispersed tephra over the last 70 kyr at a generally constant rate. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mutual climatic range method of palaeoclimate reconstruction based on insect fossils: New applications and interhemispheric comparisons

The Mutual Climatic Range (MCR) method of palaeoclimate reconstruction has been employed in Europe for the last decade. A quantitative, calibrated method, MCR has many advantages over qualitative methods. More recent applications deal with eastern and central North America, and the method is also being developed for desert and arctic faunas. The climate envelopes for North American beetles have been compiled using a 25-km gridded North American climate database that pairs climate parameters with modern collection sites. Modern tests of the reliability of the MCR method for North American species yielded similar results to prior European tests. Linear regressions of predicted on observed values yielded equations used to calibrate the MCR estimates. Work is under way to develop MCR estimates of mean annual precipitation for fossil assemblages from the desert southwest, where moisture conditions may play a more important role in determining beetle species' ranges.An examination of British and North American mean July temperature reconstructions during the Late Wisconsinan glacial interval compares and contrasts three sets of records. The North American records show no indication of the Younger Dryas cooling that is clearly marked in records from northwest Europe. The MCR method adds vigour to our reconstructions, and allows us to compare between regions and with other palaeoenvironmental methods.     

Pleistocene speleothems of Mallorca: implications for palaeoclimate and carbonate diagenesis in mixing zones

The Pleistocene speleothems of Sa Bassa Blanca cave, Mallorca, are excellent indicators of palaeoclimate variations, and are samples that allow evaluation of the products and processes of mixing‐zone diagenesis in an open‐water cave system. Integrated stratigraphic, petrographic and geochemical data from a horizontal core of speleothem identified two main origins for speleothem precipitates: meteoric‐marine mixing zone and meteoric‐vadose zone. Mixing‐zone precipitates formed at and just below the water–air interface of cave pools during interglacial times, when the cave was flooded as a result of highstand sea‐level. Mixing‐zone precipitates include bladed and dendritic high‐Mg calcite, microporous‐bladed calcite with variable Mg content, and acicular aragonite; their presence suggests that calcium‐carbonate cementation is significant in the studied mixing‐zone system. Fluid inclusion salinities, δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O compositions of the mixing‐zone precipitates suggest that mixing ratio was not the primary control on whether precipitation or dissolution occurred, rather, the proximity to the water table and degassing of CO₂ at the interface, were the major controls on precipitation. Thus, simple two‐end‐member mixing models may apply only in mixing zones well below the water table. Meteoric‐vadose speleothems include calcite and high‐Mg calcite with columnar and bladed morphologies. Vadose speleothems precipitated during glacial stages when sea level was lower than present. Progressive increase in δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O of the vadose speleothems resulted from cooling temperatures and more positive seawater δ¹⁸O associated with glacial buildup. Such covariation could be considered as a valid alternative to models predicting invariant δ¹⁸O and highly variable δ¹³C in meteoric calcite. Glacio‐eustatic oscillations of sea‐level are recorded as alternating vadose and mixing‐zone speleothems. Short‐term climatic variations are recorded as alternating aragonite and calcite speleothems precipitated in the mixing zone. Fluid‐inclusion and stable‐isotope data suggest that aragonite, as opposed to calcite, precipitated during times of reduced meteoric recharge.     

New geological framework for Western Amazonia (Brazil) and implications for biogeography and evolution

Although many of the current hypotheses to explain the origin and distribution of the Amazon biodiversity has been based directly or indirectly on geological data, the reconstruction of the geological history of the Amazon region is still inadequate to analyze its relationship with the biodiversity. This work has the main goal to characterize the sedimentary successions formed in the Brazilian Amazon in the Neogene-Quaternary discussing the evolution of the depositional systems through time and analyzing their main controlling mechanisms in order to fill up this gap. Radar image interpretation, sedimentological studies, and radiocarbon dating allowed the mapping of Plio-Pleistocene to Holocene units along the Solimões-Amazonas River, Brazil. This integrated work led to the characterization of five sedimentary successions overlying Miocene deposits of the Solimões/Pebas Formation, which include the following: Içá Formation (Plio-Pleistocene), deposits Q1 (37,400-43,700 ¹⁴C yr B.P.), deposits Q2 (27,200 ¹⁴C yr B.P.), deposits Q3 (6730-2480 ¹⁴C yr B.P.), and deposits Q4 (280-130 ¹⁴C yr B.P.). These deposits occur mostly to the west of Manaus, forming NW-SE elongated belts that are progressively younger from SW to NE, indicating a subsiding basin with a depocenter that migrated to the NE. The reconstruction of the depositional history is consistent with significant changes in the landscapes. Hence, the closure of a large lake system at the end of the Miocene gave rise to the development of a Plio-Pleistocene fluvial system. This was yet very distinct from the modern drainage, with shallow, energetic, highly migrating, braided to anastomosed channels having an overall northeast outlet. This fluvial system formed probably under climatic conditions relatively drier than today's. During the early Pleistocene, there was pronounced erosion, followed by a renewed depositional phase ca. 40,000 ¹⁴C yr B.P., with the development of prograding lobes and/or crevasse splays associated with a lake system (i.e., fan-delta) and/or fluvial flood plain areas. After a period of erosion, a fluvial system with eastward draining channels started to develop at around 27,000 ¹⁴C yr B.P. The fluvial channels were overflooded in mid-Holocene time. This flooding is attributed to an increased period of humidity, with a peak between 5000 and 2500 ¹⁴C yr B.P. The data presented herein support that, rather than being a monotonous area, the Amazonia was a place with frequent changes in landscape throughout the Neogene-Quaternary, probably as a result of climatic and tectonic factors. We hypothesize that these changes in the physical environment stressed the biota, resulting in speciation and thus had a great impact on modern biodiversity.     

鄱阳湖沉积物近8ka来有机质碳同位素记录及其古气候变化特征

通过对鄱阳湖沉积物的高密度采样和有机质碳同位素分析,讨论了鄱阳湖近 8 ka来的古气候环境.鄱阳湖沉积物有机质δ 13C值为-22.42‰～-32.42‰,属 C3类植物来源.暖湿期δ 13C值相对偏负;冷(凉)干期δ 13C值相对偏正.这些记录表明,鄱阳湖近 8 ka来经历了 4次暖湿和 4次冷(凉)干的气候环境变化, 7 900～3 660 a B.P.、3 440～2 990 a B.P.、2 940～2 170 a B.P.、1 820～6 50 a B.P.属相对温暖湿润的气候环境;3 660～3 440 a B.P.、2 990～2 940 a B.P.、2 170～1 820 a B.P.、650～200 a B.P.为相对冷凉干旱的气候环境,自 200 a B.P.(1 750 A.D.)以来湖区气候开始转暖.暖湿期持续时间较长,冷(凉)干期持续时间较短,1 000 a B.C.左右为一次重要的气候变冷事件.我国全新世几个特征性气候在湖区均有不同的显示,并与孢粉、硅藻、历史记录所反映的古气候环境对应性较好,可以作为恢复古气候变化的灵敏指标.     

内蒙古东胜铀矿区后生蚀变的稳定同位素特征及其地质意义

近十几年来,在鄂尔多斯盆地北部伊盟隆起东胜及其以西杭锦旗一带,相继发现了东胜等系列大型-特大型砂岩铀矿,目前已成为中国砂岩铀矿发现潜力最大的地区。矿床的主要特征是矿体受直罗组砂岩绿色蚀变带控制;同时,在容矿层及其附近伴生有砂岩白色化、后生碳酸盐化及方解石脉、黄铁矿化等蚀变现象。通过后生蚀变的C、H、O、S等稳定同位素方面研究、示踪和探讨了蚀变的形成过程和成因及其与铀矿化的关系。镜下特征显示,铀矿石中存在的大颗粒结核状黄铁矿与铀矿物共生,两者为同时期的产物;该类样品S同位素表现为较大的负值,表明硫质来源的微生物作用特征明显;与盆地内可能提供硫源的直罗组煤屑、延安组煤层、延长组和延安组原油、上古生界煤系地层等有机S同位素对比,发现铀矿与上古生界煤系烃源岩的有机硫源关系密切。延安组顶部大规模白色化砂岩的高岭石H、O同位素表明,其成因与低温热液作用有关;容矿层后生方解石C、O同位素表明,其形成主要是有机质作用提供了碳源,且其碳质来源主要为上古生界气源岩,而与奥陶系及延长组油气的碳源无关。后生作用流体包裹体的测温及其H、O同位素组成表明,成矿流体以低温的大气降水为主,且与上古生界天然气一起形成低温热液的气-水混合流体;正是这一特点的流体作用形成了本区与铀矿化关系密切的上述各类后生蚀变现象。各类后生蚀变的稳定同位素特征表明,东胜铀矿床形成过程中存在后生低温热液和油气还原改造作用两大特点。本次研究结果为东胜铀矿区的成因认识提供了证据。     

A high‐resolution multi‐proxy stalagmite record from Mechara,Southeastern Ethiopia: palaeohydrological implications for speleothem palaeoclimate reconstruction

An annually laminated stalagmite from Southeastern Ethiopia grew for 443±8 yr starting at 5023 yr BP (±160 yr) as determined by lamina‐tuned U‐Th dating. The speleothem shows three growth phases: (1) an initial phase where the stalagmite has a candlestick shape, deposited by relatively slow rate drip water; (2) a middle growth phase where laminae grow on the flanks, suggesting faster drip rates; and (3) a final growth phase where the speleothem becomes narrower owing to a decrease in drip water supply towards the end of deposition. Morphometry, annual growth rate, fluorescence index, and ²³⁴U/²³⁸U isotope ratio show marked differences between the growth phases, while δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O do not show significant variation, except within the third phase towards the top of the stalagmite, where they have higher values. The study indicates that the multiproxy approach is crucial as the different proxies respond to single climate forcing in different manners. Our results can be widely applied to speleothem studies distinguishing the relative importance of the various proxies in recording cave ‘external’ (climate, hydrology) and cave ‘internal’ (e.g. evaporation) processes. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.