Geochemical survey of Slovenian bottled waters

The geochemistry of the major components and trace elements in Slovenian bottled water available on the market in 2004 and 2008 was studied. The waters were predominantly from the Radenska and Rogaška Slatina mineral water source region. In this paper, a comparison of two data sets from two time periods was performed based on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov independent two-sample test. The bottled waters in the data sets were in agreement with drinking water and mineral water standards. Discrepancies were only present for B and Ni in highly mineralised waters. Analyses of the labels on the bottle packaging showed that the analytical results were in general agreement with the values reported on the labels. At the same time, the values reported on the labels by the producers showed that the chemical compositions of products available on the market for longer time periods vary. Slovenian bottled waters are predominantly controlled by a CaCO₃–CO₂–H₂O system where Na, Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ are present as the major components, in different combinations.     

Classification of natural mineral and spring bottled waters of Portugal using Principal Component Analysis

Considering its area, Portugal is one of the world's richest countries in mineral and spring waters. There are 33 different types of bottled water, 18 of which are classified as natural mineral water and the remaining as spring water. The majority of these waters are of low mineralisation in comparison to most European bottled waters.     

Stable isotope composition of Hellenic bottled waters

Bottled waters are an increasingly significant product in the human diet. In this work, we present a dataset of stable isotope ratios for bottled waters sampled in Greece. A total of 25 domestic brands of bottled still waters, collected on the Greek market in 2009, were analysed for δ¹⁸O and δ²H. The measured stable isotope ratios range from − 9.9‰ to − 6.9‰ for δ¹⁸O and from − 67.50‰ to − 46.5‰ for δ²H. Comparison of bottled water isotope ratios with natural spring water isotope ratios demonstrates that on average the isotopic composition of bottled water tends to be similar to the composition of naturally available local water sources, showing that bottled water isotope ratios preserve information about the water sources from which they were derived and suggesting that in many cases bottled water should not be considered as an isotopically distinct component of the human diet. This investigation also helped to determine the natural origin of bottled water, and to indicate differences between the natural and production processes. The production process may influence the isotopic composition of waters. No such modification was observed for sampled waters in this study. The isotopic methods applied can be used for the authentication of bottled waters and for use in the regulatory monitoring of water products.     

Chemical composition of bottled mineral waters in Estonia

Five commercially available in Estonia brands of bottled water have been analysed for 59 chemical elements by ICP-QMS and ICP-AES techniques to assess the quality of domestic mineral waters in scope of the European Groundwater Geochemistry Project initiated by the Geochemistry Expert Group of EuroGeoSurveys. Contents of 9 cations and anions, pH and electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in the bottled mineral waters by IC, titration and photometric methods. The data showed a significant difference between natural undiluted mineral water (Värska Originaal) characterised by the highest values of pH, EC and majority of trace elements studied, and other domestic waters sold in Estonia.     

Investigation of the hydrogeochemistry of some bottled mineral waters in Hungary

Bottled drinking water constitutes a significant part of total water consumption in developed countries and national and EU legislation regulates their market production. In the framework of an international project carried out by the EuroGeoSurveys Geochemistry Expert Group 36 bottled waters were obtained from public markets in Hungary in order to determine their hydrogeochemical composition. The objective of this study is to investigate the possible relationship between groundwater aquifer lithology and the processed and marketed bottled waters, and to develop a classification of bottled waters, based on their dissolved mineral content. Analytical results of this study are compared with the composition shown on bottle labels, and with archive hydrochemical data from the producing wells. Results show that, while processing of original groundwater, such as oxygen addition, iron or hydrogen-sulphide removal can significantly alter water composition, bottled water composition can be used for selection of sites for detailed hydrogeochemical and hydrogeological characterization. A simple and useful classification of bottled water quality is also presented that is based on natural groups of sampled waters derived by means of statistical data analysis methods.     

The chemistry of bottled mineral and spring waters from Norway,Sweden, Finland and Iceland

Twenty-two bottled mineral and spring waters from Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland have been analysed for 71 inorganic chemical parameters with low detection limits as a subset of a large European survey of bottled groundwater chemistry (N = 884). The Nordic bottled groundwaters comprise mainly Ca–Na–HCO₃–Cl water types, but more distinct Ca–HCO₃, Na HCO₃ and Na–Cl water types are also offered. The distributions for most elements fall between groundwater from Fennoscandian Quaternary unconsolidated aquifers and groundwater from Norwegian crystalline bedrock boreholes. Treated tap waters have slightly lower median values for many parameters, but elements associated with plumbing have significantly higher concentrations in tap waters than in bottled waters. The small dataset is able to show that excessive fluoride and uranium contents are potential drinking water problems in Fennoscandia. Nitrate and arsenic displayed low to moderate concentrations, but the number of samples from Finland and Northern Sweden was too low to detect that elevated concentrations of arsenic occur in bedrock boreholes in some regions. The data shows clearly that water sold in plastic bottles is contaminated with antimony. Antimony is toxic and suspected to be carcinogenic, but the levels are well below the EU drinking water limit. The study does not provide any health-based arguments for buying bottled mineral and spring waters for those who are served with drinking water from public waterworks. Drinking water from crystalline bedrock aquifers should be analysed. In case of elevated concentrations of fluoride, uranium or arsenic, most bottled waters, but not all, will be better alternatives when treatment of the well water is not practicable.     

Determination of major and trace elements in European bottled mineral water — Analytical methods

A total of 1785 European bottled water samples were analyzed using standard laboratory methods. The bottled water samples were purchased in 2008 at supermarkets throughout 40 European countries. The samples were analyzed for 71 chemical parameters (As, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, I, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, Zn, Zr, Br⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, F⁻, NH₄⁺, NO₂⁻, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻, SO₄²⁻, SiO₂, pH, and EC) by quadrupole inductively coupled emission spectroscopy (ICP-QMS, trace elements), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES, major elements), ion chromatography (IC, anions), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS, Hg), titration (alkalinity), photometric methods (NH₄⁺), potentiometric methods (pH), and conductometric methods (specific electrical conductivity, EC). A very strict quality control procedure was followed by analysing blanks, international reference materials, an internal project standard, and duplicate analyses, as well as by analysing 23 elements by both ICP-QMS and ICP-AES. Analysis of marketed bottled water from springs, wells or boreholes, apart from the evaluation of its quality with respect to inorganic elements, it may provide a cheap alternative to obtain a first impression about groundwater chemistry at the European scale.     

Major and trace elements in German bottled water,their regional distribution,and accordance with national and international standards

The market for mineral water has been growing steadily over the last few years. Germany is the country with the highest number of bottled mineral water brands (908 bottled water samples from 502 wells/brands were analyzed). The per capita consumption of mineral water in Germany in 2003 was 129 L. A wide range of values of one to seven orders of magnitude was determined for 71 elements in the bottled water samples analyzed by ICP-QMS, ICP-AES, IC, titration, photometric, conductometric and potentiometric methods. A comparison of the element concentrations and the legal limits for both bottled and tap water (EU, Germany, US EPA, WHO) shows that only 70% of the 908 mineral water samples fulfill the German and EU drinking water (i.e., tap water) regulations for all parameters (not including pH) for which action levels are defined. Nearly 5% of the bottled water samples not fulfill the German and EU regulations for mineral and table water. Comparison of our results with the current German and European action levels for mineral and table water shows that only 42 of the bottled water samples exceed the limits for one or more of the following elements: arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, manganese, nickel and barium concentrations. Ten of the bottled water samples contain uranium concentrations above the 10 μg/L recommended limit.     

Trace elements and ions in Italian bottled mineral waters: Identification of anomalous values and human health related effects

Microbiological studies have always had an important role in the evaluation of drinking water quality. However, since geological processes are the most important factors controlling the source and distribution of chemical elements in natural waters, the importance of geochemical data must not be underestimated. This study presents data on pH, conductivity and concentrations of 69 elements and ions (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, I, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, Zn, Zr, Br⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, F⁻, NH₄⁺, NO₂⁻, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻, SO₄²⁻, SiO₂) from 186 bottled mineral waters of 158 different Italian name brands. Analyses show a large range in concentrations for most of these elements, with variations up to four orders of magnitude. Our data demonstrate that some elements (such as Be), generally considered unlikely to occur, can instead reach surprisingly high levels in drinking water, and also how packaging can release some trace elements to the bottled water. Data analysis shows that the implementation of an international database of bottled water geochemistry and of potential toxicological effects is of paramount importance to provide a robust data set which would be useful to set international action levels and guidelines to secure bottled water quality, whose consumption has steadily increased in the recent years. A new formula to calculate nitrate and nitrite tolerable concentration levels in waters intended for human consumption is proposed, to take into account that about 5% of dietary nitrate in humans is converted to nitrite.     

Conditions of formation mineral waters in Sarissky Stiavnik and Radoma

Mineral waters in Sarissky Stiavnik and Radoma are formed on the tectonic fault zones of the Zlin formation and Makovica sandstones. Precipitation waters flow downwards thus becoming enriched in TDS content. The process is enhanced by inflow of CO₂ rich mineral waters of the Obidowa-Slopnice-Zboj unit, pushed by carbon dioxide and methane. Mineral waters in Sarissky Stiavnik and Radoma are of the Na-HCO₃ chemical type, typical for the mineral water springs of the Magura unit in this part of the flysch belt. The origin of chloride component in the TDS content can be found in the waters with thalasogenic mineralization beneath the Magura unit, where the Obidowa-Slopnice-Zboj unit is to be found. Hydrogeological structures in Sarissky Stiavnik and Radoma can be classified as combined hydrogeological structures, where the upper partial hydrogeological structure is opened (Magura unit) and the lower structure is semi-closed (unit Obidowa-Slopnice-Zboj).     

Composition of estuarine colloidal material: major and trace elements

Colloidal-sized material from the Patuxent River estuary, Maryland, was analyzed for more than 30 elements by instrumental neutron activation analysis. Sample data from stations ranging in salinity from 0.04 g/kg to 12 g/kg indicate that the winter colloidal material is dominated upstream by poorly crystallized clay minerals and iron oxide, but above a salinity of 10 g/kg, it consists primarily of carbonaceous material. Winter colloidal material decreases non-conservatively seaward from 29 to 0.6 mg/l. The summer colloidal material, however, is carbon-rich throughout the estuary and the amount of colloidal material in the upper water column does not change appreciably with increasing salinity. Many trace elements (Cs, Hf, Rb, Se, Th, V and the REE) covary with Al and probably are associated with the clay component. Other elements (As, Ba, Sb, Se, U and Zn) are considerably enriched relative to Al and may covary with the organic component. The results suggest that the freshwater winter colloidal system is a product of continental weathering processes, whereas the summer colloidal material is derived primarily from estuarine biological processes.     

Distribution of uranium in German bottled and tap water

The results presented in this paper on uranium in bottled and tap water were determined within the scope of the project “European Groundwater Geochemistry: Bottled Water” of the Geochemistry Expert Group of EuroGeoSurveys. The analyses of bottled water provide an inexpensive approach to obtain information about European groundwater geochemistry. For this study, the uranium concentrations in 1785 European mineral water samples were analyzed by ICP–QMS in the BGR laboratories. The dataset is used to obtain a first impression about natural concentration levels and variation of uranium in groundwater (and bottled water) at the German and European scale.     

Structural-tectonic features of accommodation deposits of mineral waters of Azerbaijan and their complex development

The geological structure of the territory of Azerbaijan is characterized by numerous mineral waters of various chemical, gas, microcomponental structure, temperature and medical properties which are distributed over the territories of the Republic and their physical and chemical features are closely connected to the geostructural conditions of the individual districts in which they are found.     

Spatial geochemical variation of major and trace elements in the marine sediments of Mumbai Harbor Bay

The resulting concentration data sets of major (Na, K, Mg, Ca and Fe) and trace elements (Cu, Ni, Co and Mn) in bed and suspended sediments were used to evaluate the enrichment factor for anthropogenic influences and principal component analysis for identifying the origin of source contributions in the studied area. Normalization of metals to Fe indicated that high enrichment factors in the bed sediment were in the order of Co > Cu > Na > Ca > Ni except Mg, K and Mn while for suspended sediments, only Co has a high enrichment factor. High enrichment of Co and Cu reflected the contamination of sediments from anthropogenic sources. The high influence of Na and Ca in sediments may be caused for seawater salinization factor. A significant positive correlation among enrichment factors of various elements of interest suggests a common origin/identical behavior during transport in the sediment system.     

青藏高原天然水体中铀含量的区域分布特征

对采自青藏高原部分河水及个别地下水样品中溶解态铀的含量进行了初步研究。采样地点主要包括青海的纳赤台地区及长江源头、藏北地区、雅鲁藏布江流域、西藏中西部内流域、西藏西部狮泉河流域和藏南喜马拉雅流域，共采集水体样品41个。用0．45μm的针式过滤器对样品进行了处理，高分辨电感耦合等离子体质谱仪测定了过滤水中铀的含量。结果表明，不同流域河水中铀的含量范围为0．17—6．53μg／L，均值l.20μg／L，并且存在着明显的区域变化。西藏中西部内流域河水中铀的平均含量最低(0．51μg／L)，藏南的外流域地区最高(2．48μg／L)，但数据点较少，其次是藏北地区(1.51μg／L)。并对各流域水体中铀含量存在差异的原因进行了讨论。     

The content of some microelements in mineral waters from Covasna and Harghita Romanian districts

Using two analytical techniques, CSV/ASV and ICP–AES, the concentration of some microelements (lead, zinc, manganese) in mineral waters from the Covasna and Harghita districts of Romania were determined. The optimum parameters for the voltammetric determination of manganese, copper, zinc and lead were established (electrolyte, deposition time, pulse duration, pulse amplitude, etc.) and then the content of these elements in twelve samples of mineral water were determined. The results obtained by both techniques led to the conclusion that the concentration of microelements in mineral waters from Covasna and Harghita districts is connected to the mineral content underground.     

Migration and contamination of major and trace elements in groundwater of Madras city,India

Groundwater samples collected from both open and bore wells in an area of about 270 km² from Madras City, India, have been analyzed for major ions (HCO₃, Cl, Si, Na, Ca, and Mg) and trace elements (As, Se, B, V, Cr, Fe, Co, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Ni, Mo, and Ba). The study reveals that the quality of potable water has deteriorated to a large extent. Seawater intrusion into the aquifer has been observed in nearly 50 percent of the study area. The toxic elements (As and Se) have already exceeded the maximum permissible limits of drinking water in almost the entire city. A positive correlation of As and Se with other toxic metals such as V, Cr, Fe, B, etc., indicates that all these elements are anthropogenic in origin. Applying multivariate analysis, the source for trace elements in groundwater has been grouped into two major factors: pollution and mobilization factors. The groundwater in the study area is largely contaminated by organic effluents and reflects the intensity of pollution caused by the overlying soil sediment and rapid infiltration of the pollutants.     

Source processes of the thermal waters from the Phlegraean Fields (Naples, Italy) by means of the study of selected minor and trace elements distribution

The geochemical characteristics of hydrothermal waters from the Phlegraean Fields (P.F.) (Naples, Italy) were analysed for minor and trace elements, selectively mobilised in hydrothermal systems such as B, F, Hg, As, Pb and Tl.The water samples, collected from a shallow aquifer likely to be fed by deeper fluids, showed various geochemical features, resulting from the mixing of three components: (1) surface waters of meteoric origin; (2) hot deep waters deriving from water-rock interaction and including deep waters of marine origin; (3) magmatic fluids rising from the local magma chamber, lying a few kilometres below the town of Pozzuoli.This setting, although very complex, provides a reliable means of studying the distribution of the investigated trace elements. In particular, within the Phlegraean area, high contents of B (0.1-48 mg/l), F (0.5-8 mg/l), As (16-6050 μg/l) and Hg (0.7-232 μg/l) were observed. The levels of thallium in the springs close to Solfatara (about 7 μg/l) were in line with those normally recorded in hydrothermal areas, whereas high levels of this element (up to 23.3 μg/l) were identified in other wells of the study area. Lead (1.3 to 29.1 μg/l) appears to be anomalous with respect to its normal content in groundwater (about 1 μg/l), owing to the presence of high-density brines at depth, which enhance the solubility of Pb in volcanic rocks under hydrothermal conditions.The distribution of the investigated trace elements in the Phlegraean Fields thermal area is probably related to the different ascent pathways of the fluids. Clearly, apart from the influence exerted by anomalous thermal conditions, each element shows a different behaviour, depending on its geochemical affinity with mineral phases and as a consequence of the different enthalpy values, which determine ion partitioning in gaseous phases.Based on geochemical evidences and on the distribution of minor and trace elements, the source processes of the investigated hydrothermal waters were defined. Five main groups were identified: (1) acid sulphate waters, resulting from mixing of meteoric water with magmatic gases (mainly H₂S); (2) high sulphate-chloride waters, from a deep reservoir located in the major upflow zone; (3) waters associated with significant degassing of magmatic CO₂; (4) waters from a deep geothermal neutral chloride reservoir, resulting from heating of marine water modified by water-rock interaction processes; (5) cold waters from the inner area, influenced by low-temperature, water-rock interaction processes.     

Determination of major and trace elements in sphalerite using laser ablation double focusing sector field ICP-MS

The analytical performance of laser ablation (LA) for the determination of Co, Fe, Cd, Ag, Mn, Cu and S in sphalerite was evaluated using double focusing sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SFMS). Samples were collected from Zinkgruvan, situated in the south central Sweden. The use of Zn for internal standardisation, together with correction for FeS impurities in sphalerite, allows straightforward quantification without using external methods for the determination of the actual Zn content. LA–ICP-SFMS results were compared with data obtained by conventional pneumatic nebulisation introduction of sample solutions following acid digestion. Good agreement between the two methods was obtained for homogeneously distributed elements. For the majority of the elements under consideration, LA–ICP-SFMS precision was better than 10% RSD.     

矿物原位LA-ICPMS微量元素分析及其在矿床成因和预测研究中的应用进展

随着激光剥蚀电感耦合等离子质谱技术(LA-ICPMS),短波近红外光谱分析技术(SWIR)以及其它微区分析技术的飞速发展,矿物原位微量元素组成的相关研究已成为地球科学领域的热点。目前国内外的研究主要集中在利用矿物微量元素组成来反演成矿流体的性质和演化规律,示踪成矿物质的来源,约束岩石和矿床的成因,并进行成矿带的识别和矿化中心的预测,特别是近十多年,在应用矿物微量元素组成特征进行矿床预测和勘探方面取得了巨大的进展。本文简要综述了国际上该领域近年来上述有关方面的研究现状和取得的主要进展,并重点总结和论述了部分重要矿物的原位微量元素研究在成矿预测应用方面所取得的最新成果,包括:(1)通过对岩浆成因矿物,如斜长石、锆石、磷灰石和磁铁矿等元素组成研究进行成矿潜力的判别;(2)通过热液蚀变矿物,如绿帘石,绿泥石,磁铁矿和明矾石等的元素组成来预测矿化中心的方向和位置,同时进行含矿性和成矿潜力的判别。文章认为,随着微区分析技术的飞速发展,矿物原位微量元素组成的研究已成为地球科学领域特别是矿床学和勘查学的研究热点。继续加强矿物原位LA-ICPMS微量元素分析技术及相关基础研究,进一步探索和应用不同矿物微量元素组成特征来建立精确的勘探指针,有效指导深部矿床勘查,是下一步的主要发展方向。