Major and trace elements in German bottled water,their regional distribution,and accordance with national and international standards

The market for mineral water has been growing steadily over the last few years. Germany is the country with the highest number of bottled mineral water brands (908 bottled water samples from 502 wells/brands were analyzed). The per capita consumption of mineral water in Germany in 2003 was 129 L. A wide range of values of one to seven orders of magnitude was determined for 71 elements in the bottled water samples analyzed by ICP-QMS, ICP-AES, IC, titration, photometric, conductometric and potentiometric methods. A comparison of the element concentrations and the legal limits for both bottled and tap water (EU, Germany, US EPA, WHO) shows that only 70% of the 908 mineral water samples fulfill the German and EU drinking water (i.e., tap water) regulations for all parameters (not including pH) for which action levels are defined. Nearly 5% of the bottled water samples not fulfill the German and EU regulations for mineral and table water. Comparison of our results with the current German and European action levels for mineral and table water shows that only 42 of the bottled water samples exceed the limits for one or more of the following elements: arsenic, nitrate, nitrite, manganese, nickel and barium concentrations. Ten of the bottled water samples contain uranium concentrations above the 10 μg/L recommended limit.     

General ground water geochemistry of Hellas using bottled water samples

Sixty-one still bottled water samples, representing 41 locations, were collected from Hellas for the purpose of studying the geochemistry of ground water. Since, the dominating lithology comprises limestone, dolomitic limestone, marble, and mafic–ultramafic rocks (ophiolites), the dominant major ions in Hellenic bottled waters are Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, CO₃²⁻ and HCO₃⁻, and are, thus, classified in the Ca²⁺–Mg²⁺–HCO₃⁻ hydrochemical facies. The source aquifers of Hellenic bottled water are apparently continuously replenished by fresh water. Comparison of values of Ca, Mg, K, Na, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻, pH and electrical conductivity, displayed on bottle labels with those of this study, has shown that there is a fairly good correlation between the two data sets, suggesting that the geochemistry of source aquifers is relatively stable over time, at least from 1998 to 2008.     

Geochemical survey of Slovenian bottled waters

The geochemistry of the major components and trace elements in Slovenian bottled water available on the market in 2004 and 2008 was studied. The waters were predominantly from the Radenska and Rogaška Slatina mineral water source region. In this paper, a comparison of two data sets from two time periods was performed based on the Kolmogorov–Smirnov independent two-sample test. The bottled waters in the data sets were in agreement with drinking water and mineral water standards. Discrepancies were only present for B and Ni in highly mineralised waters. Analyses of the labels on the bottle packaging showed that the analytical results were in general agreement with the values reported on the labels. At the same time, the values reported on the labels by the producers showed that the chemical compositions of products available on the market for longer time periods vary. Slovenian bottled waters are predominantly controlled by a CaCO₃–CO₂–H₂O system where Na, Cl⁻ and SO₄²⁻ are present as the major components, in different combinations.     

Use of measurement uncertainty in a probabilistic scheme to assess compliance of bottled water with drinking water standards

Ground water bodies are important resources for drinking water, including bottled water, and national regulatory bodies should assess their quality continuously. For this purpose, an effective assessment system of bottled water at source should be installed. A hierarchical nested balance design for the collection of random primary duplicate water samples, and their replicate analyses, is described, and the use of robust analysis of variance to estimate measurement uncertainty. The latter is subsequently used for the development of four probabilistic categories for the classification of element concentrations in bottled water with respect to legislative standard values, i.e., (a) compliant (below Lower Threshold Limit), (b) possibly non-compliant (possibly above Standard Value), (c) probably non-compliant (probably above Standard Value), and (d) non-compliant (above Upper Threshold Limit), for the reliable assessment of compliance to European Union and national drinking water standards. Overall, the quality of European bottled water is considered good, with the exception of a few that have concentrations in Mn, B, Ba, As, Fe, Ni, Se, and Al, which are definitely above the estimated respective Upper Threshold Limit and, thus, exceed the corresponding legislative standard value defined by European Union directives. National regulatory bodies should verify these results, and install an efficient assessment system of compliance to regulatory limits using the methodology described in this paper.     

Alternatives to tap water: a case study of the Gaza Strip, Palestine

Gaza Strip is a highly populated, small area in which the groundwater is the main water source. During the last few decades, groundwater quality has deteriorated to a limit that the municipal tap water became brackish and unsuitable for human consumption in most parts of the strip. To overcome this serious situation, several attempts were made to replace the tap water or to improve its quality by water desalination applying the reverse osmosis (RO) technology, bottled water, importing water, and storm water harvesting. Water desalination, which is widely applied in the strip, has environmental and health risks. Brine water resulting from the RO systems has adverse environmental effects, whereas the produced fresh water with very low chemical concentrations may have harmful effects on human health. Therefore, introducing international water quality standards to delineate the harmless minimum limits is necessary. Storm water harvesting can provide a partial solution for the water problems in the strip.     

鹿井铀矿床铀矿物学特征

鹿井矿床位于南华活动带华夏褶皱带武功—诸广断隆区,闽、赣后加里东褶皱地块西缘,诸广山复式岩体中段,受遂川断裂及热水断裂组成的地堑式断陷带控制。本文主要对鹿井矿床内铀矿物的赋存状态、成分特征及组合特征进行了研究。     

Determination of major and trace elements in European bottled mineral water — Analytical methods

A total of 1785 European bottled water samples were analyzed using standard laboratory methods. The bottled water samples were purchased in 2008 at supermarkets throughout 40 European countries. The samples were analyzed for 71 chemical parameters (As, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, I, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, Zn, Zr, Br⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, F⁻, NH₄⁺, NO₂⁻, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻, SO₄²⁻, SiO₂, pH, and EC) by quadrupole inductively coupled emission spectroscopy (ICP-QMS, trace elements), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES, major elements), ion chromatography (IC, anions), atomic fluorescence spectrometry (AFS, Hg), titration (alkalinity), photometric methods (NH₄⁺), potentiometric methods (pH), and conductometric methods (specific electrical conductivity, EC). A very strict quality control procedure was followed by analysing blanks, international reference materials, an internal project standard, and duplicate analyses, as well as by analysing 23 elements by both ICP-QMS and ICP-AES. Analysis of marketed bottled water from springs, wells or boreholes, apart from the evaluation of its quality with respect to inorganic elements, it may provide a cheap alternative to obtain a first impression about groundwater chemistry at the European scale.     

Composition and variation of major and trace elements in Croatian bottled waters

Within the framework of the Pan-European project about the geochemistry of bottled mineral waters in Europe launched in 2007 by the European Geological Surveys (EGS) Geochemistry Expert Group fourteen brands of bottled natural waters from Croatia of both mineral and spring types were evaluated for getting more coherent spatial information about the natural variation of element concentration in bottled waters found at the European market. Results of chemical analysis show that not a single one out of fourteen analyzed bottled waters from Croatia exceeds the Croatian water standards sanctioning thereby their suitability for human consumption. Also, statistical tests performed for 41 analytes (including pH and EC) clearly show that the water chemistry is in a high degree of conformity with regional geology, depending on structural, stratigraphic and, above all, lithological diversity of aquifers. Thus Dinaric and Pannonian parts of Croatia differ largely with regard to their water types: Dinaric region is completely lacking mineral water types while, on the other side, in the Pannonian region even the spring waters show stronger mineralization in comparison with their Dinaric counterparts. Typically, all natural waters from Croatia bear the bicarbonate (HCO₃) signature. However, Ca–Mg cation pair combination is characteristic of spring waters while Na–K dominates in the mineral waters.     

非洲铀矿资源分布、地质特征与勘查开发

非洲铀矿资源丰富,在全球占有重要地位,是我国利用铀矿资源的重要来源地。通过分析非洲259处已知铀矿床（点）的地质特征与勘查开发现状,揭示非洲铀矿资源具有分布集中、规模巨大、矿床类型多样等特点,砂岩型、古石英-卵石砾岩型、侵入岩型是最重要的铀矿类型,非洲铀矿主要分布于卡普瓦尔克拉通、新元古代褶皱带的达马拉褶皱带和西非活动带伊勒姆登大型盆地,成矿作用明显受地层、构造、岩浆岩等控制。不同类型矿床成矿时代具有各自特征,古石英-卵石砾岩型铀矿床全部形成于太古宙,侵入岩型铀矿床大多形成于元古宙,砂岩型铀矿床形成时代跨度大,从元古宙到新生代均有产出。近十年来非洲新增铀储量27万吨。建议国内企业抓住机遇,以侵入岩型和砂岩型铀矿为投资重点,加强在纳米比亚和尼日尔等铀矿资源国的勘查开发合作。     

Trace elements and ions in Italian bottled mineral waters: Identification of anomalous values and human health related effects

Microbiological studies have always had an important role in the evaluation of drinking water quality. However, since geological processes are the most important factors controlling the source and distribution of chemical elements in natural waters, the importance of geochemical data must not be underestimated. This study presents data on pH, conductivity and concentrations of 69 elements and ions (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Ca, Cd, Ce, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Dy, Er, Eu, Fe, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, Ho, I, K, La, Li, Lu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pb, Pr, Rb, Sb, Sc, Se, Sm, Sn, Sr, Ta, Tb, Te, Th, Ti, Tl, Tm, U, V, W, Y, Yb, Zn, Zr, Br⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, F⁻, NH₄⁺, NO₂⁻, NO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻, SO₄²⁻, SiO₂) from 186 bottled mineral waters of 158 different Italian name brands. Analyses show a large range in concentrations for most of these elements, with variations up to four orders of magnitude. Our data demonstrate that some elements (such as Be), generally considered unlikely to occur, can instead reach surprisingly high levels in drinking water, and also how packaging can release some trace elements to the bottled water. Data analysis shows that the implementation of an international database of bottled water geochemistry and of potential toxicological effects is of paramount importance to provide a robust data set which would be useful to set international action levels and guidelines to secure bottled water quality, whose consumption has steadily increased in the recent years. A new formula to calculate nitrate and nitrite tolerable concentration levels in waters intended for human consumption is proposed, to take into account that about 5% of dietary nitrate in humans is converted to nitrite.     

Classification of natural mineral and spring bottled waters of Portugal using Principal Component Analysis

Considering its area, Portugal is one of the world's richest countries in mineral and spring waters. There are 33 different types of bottled water, 18 of which are classified as natural mineral water and the remaining as spring water. The majority of these waters are of low mineralisation in comparison to most European bottled waters.     

Geochemical coupling of uranium and phosphorous in soils overlying an unmined uranium deposit: Coles Hill, Virginia

The mineralogy and geochemistry of soils developed over the unmined Coles Hill uranium deposit (Virginia) were studied to determine how phosphorous influences the speciation of uranium in oxidizing soil/saprolite systems typical of the eastern US. Results from this study have implications for both uranium remediation (e.g. in situ stabilization) and uranium resource exploration (e.g. near-surface geochemical sampling). The primary uranium ore (coffinite and uraninite hosted in quartzo-feldspathic gneiss) weathers to saprolites containing the same uranium concentration as the underlying ore (approximately 1000 mg U/kg saprolites). In these water saturated (below water table) saprolites the uranium is retained as uranyl phosphates of the meta-autunite group (mainly meta-uranocircite). Above the water table the soils overlying the deposit contain approximately 200 mg uranium per kg soil (20 times higher than uranium concentrations in similar soils formed from unmineralized rocks adjacent to the deposit). In these unsaturated zone soils uranium is retained by two processes: (1) incorporation into barium–strontium–calcium aluminum phosphate minerals of the crandallite group (mainly gorceixite), and (2) sorption of uranium with phosphorous onto iron oxides that coat the surfaces of other soil minerals.Thermodynamic calculations suggest that the meta-autunite group minerals present in the saprolites below the water table are not stable in the unsaturated zone soils overlying the deposit due to the drop in soil pH from  6.0 down to  4.5. Mineralogical observations suggest that, once exposed to the unsaturated environment, the meta-autunite group minerals react to form U(VI)-bearing aluminum phosphates and U(VI) surface complexes or nano-precipitates associated with ferric oxides. These results therefore indicate that models predicting U(VI) speciation in phosphate amended soils must simultaneously account for variations in pH, ion activities (aluminum appears to be particularly important) and surface complexation with iron oxide mineral surfaces.     

多元校正分析在水环境地球化学领域中的应用

多元校正分析法应用于水环境地球化学研究,可对复杂的分析数据进行处理和解析,反映水质状况与污染之间的各种关系,建立水质评价和预测模型,从而科学地服务于治理水污染。评述了多元分析方法如主成分分析、偏最小二乘法、人工神经网络等在水环境地球化学研究中的应用、进展和前景。     

多元校正分析在水环境地球化学领域中的应用

多元校正分析法应用于水环境地球化学研究,可对复杂的分析数据进行处理和解析,反映水质状况与污染之间的各种关系,建立水质评价和预测模型,从而科学地服务于治理水污染。评述了多元分析方法如主成分分析、偏最小二乘法、人工神经网络等在水环境地球化学研究中的应用、进展和前景。     

The Proterozoic,albitite-hosted,Valhalla uranium deposit,Queensland, Australia: a description of the alteration assemblage associated with uranium mineralisation in diamond drill hole V39

The Valhalla uranium deposit, located 40 km north of Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia, is an albitite-hosted, Mesoproterozoic U deposit similar to albitite-hosted uranium deposits in the Ukraine, Sweden, Brazil and Guyana. Uranium mineralisation is hosted by a thick package of interbedded fine-grained sandstones, arkoses and gritty siltstones that are bound by metabasalts belonging to the ca. 1,780 Ma Eastern Creek Volcanics in the Western Succession of the Mount Isa basin. Alteration associated with U mineralisation can be divided into an early, main and late stage. The early stage is dominated by laminated and intensely altered rock comprising albite, reibeckite, calcite, (titano)magnetite ± brannerite. The main stage of mineralisation is dominated by brecciated and intensely altered rocks that comprise laminated and intensely altered rock cemented by brannerite, apatite, (uranoan)-zircon, uraninite, anatase, albite, reibeckite, calcite and hematite. The late stage of mineralisation comprises uraninite, red hematite, dolomite, calcite, chlorite, quartz and Pb-, Fe-, Cu-sulfides. Brannerite has U–Pb and Pb–Pb ages that indicate formation between 1,555 and 1,510 Ma, with significant Pb loss evident at ca. 1,200 Ma, coincident with the assemblage of Rodinia. The oldest ages of the brannerite overlap with ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar ages of 1,533 ± 9 Ma and 1,551 ± 7 Ma from early and main-stage reibeckite and are interpreted to represent the timing of formation of the deposit. These ages coincide with the timing of peak metamorphism in the Mount Isa area during the Isan Orogeny. Lithogeochemical assessment of whole rock data that includes mineralised and unmineralised samples from the greater Mount Isa district reveals that mineralisation involved the removal of K, Ba and Si and the addition of Na, Ca, U, V, Zr, P, Sr, F and Y. U/Th ratios indicate that the ore-forming fluid was oxidised, whereas the crystal chemistry of apatite and reibeckite within the ore zone suggests that F⁻ and were important ore-transporting complexes. δ¹⁸O values of co-existing calcite and reibeckite indicate that mineralisation occurred between 340 and 380°C and involved a fluid having δ¹⁸O_fluid values between 6.5 and 8.6‰. Reibeckite δD values reveal that the ore fluid had a δD_fluid value between −98 and −54‰. The mineral assemblages associated with early and main stages of alteration, plus δ¹⁸O_fluid and δD_fluid values, and timing of the U mineralisation are all very similar to those associated with Na–Ca alteration in the Eastern Succession of the Mount Isa basin, where a magmatic fluid is favoured for this style of alteration. However, isotopic data from Valhalla is also consistent with that from the nearby Mount Isa Cu deposit where a basinal brine is proposed for the transport of metals to the deposit. Based on the evidence to hand, the source fluids could have been derived from either or both the metasediments that underlie the Eastern Creek Volcanics or magmatism that is manifest in the Mount Isa area as small pegmatite dykes that intruded during the Isan Orogeny.     

松辽盆地西南部钱家店铀矿床物源分析及铀成矿意义

基于开鲁盆地钱家店铀矿床姚下段砂岩的碎屑组分分析、重矿物组合特征以及稀土元素分析,探讨了该砂岩型铀矿的物质来源及矿质来源。碎屑组分分析指示该地区姚下段砂岩碎屑矿物以石英为主,碱性长石次之,岩屑类型丰富且含量较高;重矿物组合特征反映出姚下段重矿物以稳定矿物钛磁铁矿、白钛石、锆石和石榴石等为主,不稳定矿物绿帘石、硬绿泥石及黑云母含量较少;稀土元素特征显示出蚀源区花岗岩与过渡带相似的REE分布模式,花岗岩的ΣREE值与过渡带的ΣREE值较接近,且均具有铕负异常。综上所述,钱家店地区姚家组下段沉积显示了多物源体系的特征,碎屑矿物以中酸性岩浆岩来源为主,变质岩来源碎屑为辅;物源主要有3大方向：西北部舍伯吐凸起物源、东部架玛吐凸起物源及南部的燕山造山带物源,物源总体以南部燕山造山带为主,同时受多方向物源的共同控制。燕山晚期中酸性富铀岩浆岩在钱家店铀矿床铀源供给方面扮演了重要的角色。     

川西甲基卡稀有金属矿田地表水中稀有金属元素分布特征及意义

2016～2018年系统采集川西甲基卡稀有金属矿田及周边地表水样品88件,测试分析了样品中Li、Be、Rb、Sr、Zr、Nb、Cs、Hf、Ta九种稀有金属元素含量及八种主要阴阳离子含量。结果表明:甲基卡矿田地表水水化学类型主要为HCO_3-Ca型。甲基卡矿区地表水中Li、Be、Nb、Rb、Cs、Ta等稀有金属元素平均含量明显高于川西河流平均值,Zr、Hf元素含量与川西河流均值相近,Sr含量远低于川西河流均值。经甲基卡矿区地表水稀有金属含量与矿脉分布空间耦合验证,地表水中Li、Rb、Cs、Be元素含量对矿脉的存在有明显的响应特征,其含量分布可以有效地服务于稀有金属矿产勘查,针对甲基卡外围地形高差大、切割深的特点,认为根据水地球化学异常来找矿也不失为一种有效方法,可以尝试运用地表水中稀有金属元素异常来缩小找矿靶区。     

Spatial and temporal variability of surface water and groundwater before and after the remediation of a Portuguese uranium mine area

The old Senhora das Fontes uranium mine, in central Portugal, consists of quartz veins which penetrated along fracture shear zones at the contact between graphite schist and orthogneiss. The mine was exploited underground until a depth of 90 m and was closed down in 1971. The ores from this mine and two others were treated in the mine area by the heap-leach process which ended in 1982. Seven dumps containing a total of about 33,800 m³ of material and partially covered by natural vegetation were left in the mine area. A remediation process took place from May 2010 to January 2011. The material deposited in dumps was relocated and covered with erosion resisting covers. Surface water and groundwater were collected in the wet season just before the remediation, in the following season at the beginning of the remediation and also after the remediation in the following dry season. Before, at the beginning and after the remediation, surface water and groundwater have an acid-to-alkaline pH, which decreased with the remediation, whereas Eh increased. In general, before the remediation, uranium concentration was up to 83 μg/L in surface water and up to 116 μg/L in groundwater, whereas at the beginning of the remediation it increases up to 183 μg/L and 272 μg/L in the former and the latter, respectively, due to the remobilization of mine dumps and pyrite and chalcopyrite exposures, responsible for the pH decrease. In general, after the remediation, the U concentration decreased significantly in surface water and groundwater at the north part of the mine area, but increased in both, particularly in the latter up to 774 μg/L in the south and southwest parts of this area, attributed to the remobilization of sulphides that caused mobilization of metals and arsenic which migrated to the groundwater flow. Uranium is adsorbed in clay minerals, but also in goethite as indicated by the geochemical modelling. After the remediation, the saturation indices of oxyhydroxides decrease as pH decreases. The remediation also caused decrease in Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Sr and Mn concentrations of surface water and groundwater, particularly in the north part of the mine area, which is supported by the speciation modelling that shows the decrease of most dissolved bivalent species. However, in general, after the remediation, Th, Cd, Al, Li, Pb, Sr and As concentrations increased in groundwater and surface water at south and southwest of the mine area. Before and after the remediation, surface water and groundwater are contaminated in U, Cd, Cr, Al, Mn, Ni, Pb, Cu and As. Remediation caused only some improvement at north of the mine area, because at south and southwest part, after the remediation, the groundwater is more contaminated than before the remediation.