Hydrogeological environment and groundwater occurrences of the alluvial aquifers in parts of the Central Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India

A detailed hydrogeological investigation was carried out in parts of the Central Ganga Plain, India, with the objective of assessing the aquifer framework and its resource potential. The area was studied because of its dual hydrogeological situation, that is water logging and soil salinization in the canal command areas and depletion of aquifers in the western part of the basin. A comprehensive investigation of the aquifer system between the Ganga River and Kali River revealed its lateral and vertical dimensions and hydrogeological characteristics. Moreover, study of the groundwater occurrences, movements and behaviour, in terms of water level fluctuation with time and space, confirms the coexistence of over exploitation as well as water logging in the area.

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Resumen Una investigación hidrogeológica detallada se llevó a cabo en partes de la Llanura de Ganga Central, India, con el objetivo de evaluar la estructura del acuífero y su potencial del recurso. El área fue estudiada por su doble situación hidrogeológica, es decir la saturación con agua y salinización de suelos en las áreas dominadas por el canal y vaciamiento de acuíferos en el la parte occidental de la cuenca. Una investigación completa del sistema acuífero entre el Río Ganga y el Río Kali, reveló sus dimensiones verticales y laterales y las características hidrogeológicas. Además, los estudios sobre la ocurrencia del agua subterránea, sus movimientos y comportamiento, en lo que se refiere al nivel de agua, y a su fluctuación en el tiempo y el espacio, confirma la co-existencia en el área de sobre- explotación así como de saturación con agua.

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Résumé L'objectif de cette étude hydrogéologique détaillée de portions de la Plaine Centrale du Gange est de déreminer la structure aquifère et la ressource potentielle. L'intérêt de la zone repose sur sa dualité du point de vue hydrogéologique, les zones influencées par le canal présentent une remontée de la nappe avec une salinisation des sols, la portion Ouest du bassin présente une baisse du niveau des aquifères. Par cette étude, le système aquifère compris entre la rivière du Gange et la rivière Kali révèle ses dimensions latérales et verticales ainsi que ses caractéristiques hydrogéologiques. De plus, l'étude des événements, des mouvements et du régime hydrogéologique affectant le niveau phréatique confirme la co-existence de surexploitation et de saturation des sols dans la région.

     

Hydrochemical appraisal of groundwater and its suitability in the intensive agricultural area of Muzaffarnagar district,Uttar Pradesh,India

Muzaffarnagar is an economically rich district situated in the most fertile plains of two great rivers Ganga and Yamuna in the Indo-gangetic plains, with agricultural land irrigated by both surface water as well as groundwater. An investigation has been carried out to understand the hydrochemistry of the groundwater and its suitability for irrigation uses. Groundwater in the study area is neutral to moderately alkaline in nature. Chemistry of groundwater suggests that alkaline earths (Ca + Mg) significantly exceed the alkalis (Na + K) and weak acids exceed the strong acids (Cl + SO₄), suggesting the dominance of carbonate weathering followed by silicate weathering. Majority of the groundwater samples (62%) posses Ca–Mg–HCO₃ type of hydrochemical species, followed by Ca–Na–Mg–HCO₃, Na–Ca–Mg–HCO₃, Ca–Mg–Na–HCO₃–Cl and Na–Ca–HCO₃–SO₄ types. A positive high correlation (r ² = 0.928) between Na and Cl suggests that the salinity of groundwater is due to intermixing of two or more groundwater bodies with different hydrochemical compositions. Barring a few locations, most of the groundwater samples are suitable for irrigation uses. Chemical fertilizers, sugar factories and anthropogenic activities are contributing to the sulphate and chloride concentrations in the groundwater of the study area. Overexploitation of aquifers induced multi componential mixing of groundwater with agricultural return flow waters is responsible for generating groundwater of various compositions in its lateral extent.     

Gradient profiling for the investigation of groundwater saturated fractures in hard rocks of Uttar Pradesh,India

Gradient profiling (GP) has been successfully utilized as a preliminary tool to identify fractured zones saturated with groundwater in hard-rock areas of Robertsganj, Sonebhadra district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Conducting geoelectrical sounding at randomly selected places may not provide fruitful results since fractures are sparsely distributed in hard rocks. In gradient profiling, current electrodes with large separation remain fixed while the potential dipole is moved between the current electrodes in the central one-third portion of the profile at a small station interval. A GP survey was conducted along seven profiles having different lengths in two small sectors of the study area. Low resistive zones have been identified which correspond to the fractured zones. A few geoelectrical soundings were carried out to investigate the depth and thickness of the fractured zones. Two test boreholes, one drilled in each sector, yielded continuous discharge of fresh water (18,000–24,000 L/h). The present study confirms the findings of previous work that the GP survey is a powerful initial technique that identifies the presence of a fractured zone, especially in a hard-rock area covered with a thin soil layer.     

Mass transport modelling for assessement of groundwater contamination around Mathura oil refinery, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India

Mathura oil refinery was commissioned during 1977 and effluent storage ponds were constructed at the same time. These storage ponds receive wastewater from the refinery at a rate of 10000 m³/day. After treatment, waste water is discharged through a 3-km pipeline to a stream leading to the Yamuna river. The groundwater-monitoring as well as water-quality monitoring was carried at 24 observation wells in the refinery site during 1997. The water quality measurements indicated total dissolved chloride and sulphate concentration of native groundwater as 400 mg/l, whereas elevated levels up to 600 mg/l were found at the wells close to polishing ponds. Thus combined transport of chloride and sulphate was simulated in the mass transport model. A three-dimensional flow, pathlines and mass transport model of the aquifer system were constructed to analyze the impact of seepage from polishing ponds contaminating the groundwater regime. The permeability of aquifer varies between 1.5–2.5 m/day. The porosity of formation was assumed as 0.2. The constant head and constant concentration boundaries were assigned to the nodes representing effluent storage ponds. Longitudinal dispersivity of 100 m, horizontal transverse dispersivity of 10 m and vertical transverse dispersivity of 0.01 m were assumed. The mass transport model was calibrated for 20 years by comparing total dissolved chloride and sulphate concentrations from 1997. The model predictions indicate further migration of contaminants on the east of effluent ponds in future. Received: 4 January 1999 · Accepted: 12 July 1999     

Seasonal variation of groundwater quality in a part of Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India

The area in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India, is selected to discuss the impact of seasonal variation of groundwater quality on irrigation and human health, where the agriculture is the main livelihood of rural people and the groundwater is the main source for irrigation and drinking. Granite gneisses associated with schists and charnockites of the Precambrian Eastern Ghats underlie the area. Groundwater samples collected seasonally, pre- and post-monsoons, during three years from forty wells in the area were analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, TA, TH, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, CO₃²⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, NO₃⁻and F⁻. The chemical relationships in Piper’s diagram, Chebotarev’s genetic classification and Gibbs’s diagram suggest that the groundwaters mainly belong to non-carbonate alkali type and Cl⁻ group, and are controlled by evaporation-dominance, respectively, due to the influence of semi-arid climate, gentle slope, sluggish drainage conditions, greater water–rock interaction, and anthropogenic activities. A comparison of the groundwater quality in relation to drinking water quality standards proves that most of the water samples are not suitable for drinking, especially in post-monsoon period. US Salinity Laboratory’s and Wilcox’s diagrams, and %Na⁺ used for evaluating the water quality for irrigation suggest that the majority of the groundwater samples are not good for irrigation in post-monsoon compared to that in pre-monsoon. These conditions are caused due to leaching of salts from the overlying materials by infiltrating recharge waters. A management plan is suggested for sustainable development of the area.     

Electrical resistivity surveys to delineate groundwater potential aquifers in Peddavanka watershed,Anantapur District,Andhra Pradesh,India

Vertical electrical resistivity soundings were conducted in order to delineate groundwater potential aquifers in Peddavanka watershed, which is a catchment of about 398 km² in Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India. The main lithologic units in the watershed are quartzite, limestone, shale, and alluvium. Ninety-nine vertical electrical soundings were conducted using the Schlumberger configuration, covering the entire watershed. The data were interpreted with the help of master curves and auxiliary point charts. Interpretations of VES were used to generate a top layer apparent resistivity contour map and longitudinal conductance map. Isoresistivity contour maps were prepared and interpreted in terms of resistivity and thickness of various sub-surface layers using computer software (SURFER), and isocontour diagrams depicting the depth to bedrock were prepared. Resistivity results were correlated with the existing lithology. Based on the depth to bedrock, the thickness of the saturated layer and the resistivity of the second layer, a groundwater potential map has been prepared, in which good, moderate, and poor zones are classified. The study reveals that the weathered and fractured portions in shale and limestone that occur in the southernmost and central portions of the watershed area constitute the productive water-bearing zones categorized as good groundwater potential aquifers.     

Nitrate pollution and its distribution in the groundwater of Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, India

The complex depositional pattern of clay and sand in most of the areas controlled the vertical and lateral movement of nitrate in groundwater. The variation of nitrate concentration at different groundwater levels and the lateral distribution of nitrate in the groundwater at two sites indicated the filtration of nitrate by clayey formations. A rural agricultural district located in the Vamsadhara river basin, India was selected for studying the lateral and vertical distribution of nitrate in the groundwater and the association of nitrate with other chemical constituents. The nitrate concentrations in the groundwater are observed to vary between below detectable limit and 450 mg NO₃/L. The sources for nitrate are mainly point sources (poultry farms, cattleshed and leakages from septic tanks) and non-point sources (nitrogenous fertilisers). The nitrate concentrations are increased after fertiliser applications. However, very high concentrations of nitrate are derived from animal wastes. Relatively better correlations between nitrate and potassium are observed (R = 0.74 to 0.82). The better relationship between these two chemical constituents in the groundwater may be due to the release of potassium and nitrate from both point and non-point sources. The nitrate and potassium concentrations are high in the groundwater from clayey formations.     

Geochemistry of groundwater,Burdwan District,West Bengal,India

Hydrogeochemical investigations are carried out in the different blocks of Burdwan district, West Bengal, India in order to assess its suitability for drinking as well as irrigation water purpose. Altogether 49 representative groundwater samples are collected from bore wells and the water chemistry of various ions viz. Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, CO₃²⁻, HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻ and NO₃⁻ are carried out. The chemical relationships in Piper and Gibbs diagram suggest that the groundwater mainly belongs to alkali type and Cl⁻ group and are controlled by rock dominance. A comparison of groundwater quality in relation to drinking water quality standards proves that most of the water samples are suitable for drinking water purpose whereas groundwater in some areas of the district has high salinity and high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), indicating unsuitability for irrigation water and needs adequate drainage.     

Hydrochemical characteristics and seasonal variations in groundwater quality of an alluvial aquifer in parts of Central Ganga Plain,Western Uttar Pradesh,India

The present study was undertaken to assess major ion chemistry of groundwater in parts of the Central Ganga Plain and observe seasonal variations in its chemical quality. Systematic sampling was carried out during November 2005 and June 2006. The major ion chemistry of groundwater shows large variations, so much so that at times the meteoric signature seems to be completely obliterated. In many samples the concentrations of SO₄, NO₃ and F are above the permissible limit for human consumption. The graphical treatment of major ion chemistry helps in identifying four types of groundwater. All possible ionic species such as NaCl, KCl, NaHCO₃, NaSO₄, KNO₃, NaNO₃, CaHCO₃, MgHCO₃, MgSO₄ are likely to occur in groundwater system. The observed chemical variations may be attributed to sediment water interaction, ion exchange, dissolution mechanisms and anthropogenic influences such as application of fertilizers and effluents from sugar factories and paper mills. A general increase in TDS is observed in samples during June 2006. The increase in salinity is attributed to evaporation from water table, irrigation return flows, anthropogenic activities and below average rainfall in 2005 and 2006. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Assessment of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes: a case study of Peddavanka watershed, Anantapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India

In India, the quantity and quality of water available for irrigation is variable from place to place. Assessment of water quality has been carried out to determine the sources of dissolved ions in groundwater. Quality of groundwater in a 398 km² Peddavanka watershed of a semi-arid region of south India is evaluated for its suitability for drinking and irrigation purposes. The middle Proterozoic Cuddapah Supergroup and Kurnool Group of rocks underlie most of the watershed. The main lithologic units consist chiefly of quartzite, limestone, and shale. Seventy-six water samples were collected from open-wells and bore-holes. Water samples were collected representative of the post-monsoon (winter) and pre-monsoon (summer). The quality assessment is made through the estimation of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, SO₄²⁻, CO₃²⁻, HCO₃⁻, total hardness as CaCO₃, TDS, EC, and pH. Based on these analyses, parameters like sodium adsorption ratio, % sodium, residual sodium carbonate, non-carbonate hardness, potential salinity, Kelley’s ratio, magnesium ratio, index of base exchange and permeability index were calculated. According to Gibbs‘ ratio samples in both seasons fall in the rock dominance field. The overall quality of waters in the study area in post-monsoon season is high for all constituents ruling out pollution from extraneous sources.     

The Green Revolution re-assessed: Insider perspectives on agrarian change in Bulandshahr District, Western Uttar Pradesh, India

In spite of raising Asian per capita food production by 27% and making India food self-sufficient, the Green Revolution has received much criticism for its environmental and socio-economic impacts. Taking on board post-development critiques of ‘speaking for’ Third World ‘others’, this paper seeks to examine the Green Revolution from the points of view of people directly affected by it. Comparative, historically-informed research in three villages for which 1972 baseline data exist reveal that the Green Revolution has ensured, in the words of one marginal farmer that ‘nobody sleeps with an empty stomach nowadays’. Most villagers associate the Green Revolution with increases in living standards and weakening community-based wealth hierarchies. Nevertheless, socio-economic inequalities between certain Scheduled Castes and other villagers are still very apparent.     

Geoenvironmental effects of groundwater regime in Andhra Pradesh, India

 The Indian subcontinent has the largest semi-arid tropical (SAT) area among developing nations. The State of Andhra Pradesh falls under the SAT region in India and is mostly covered by compact and hard rocks, characterized by seasonal rainfall of a highly fluctuating nature, in both space and time. As a consequence of the green revolution and an increase in industrial activity, there has been an increase in the utilization of groundwater resources during the last two decades in Andhra Pradesh. The development has also caused a number of problems, such as water table decline, decrease in well yields and seawater intrusion. Although major irrigation projects have contributed to improved agricultural production, the associated problems of waterlogging, salinization and loss of valuable bioresources have led to the gradual degradation of the land, affecting agricultural productivity. Surface water and groundwater have also been polluted in several parts of the State because of untreated discharge of effluents from the industries into nearby streams or open lands. A brief account of the overall scenario of the hydrogeological framework and geo-environmental effects on the groundwater regime in Andhra Pradesh is presented. Possible management practices and conservation methods are suggested. Received: 9 August 1999 · Accepted: 10 July 2000     

Fluorine distribution in waters of Nalgonda District, Andhra Pradesh, India

Geochemical and hydrochemical studies were conducted in Nalgonda District (A.P.), to explore the causes of high fluorine in waters, causing a widespread incidence of fluorosis in the local population. Samples of granitic rocks, soils, stream sediments, and waters were analyzed for F and other salient chemical parameters. Samples from the area of Hyderabad city were analyzed for comparison. The F content of waters in areas with endemic fluorosis ranges from 0.4 to 20 mg/l. The low calcium content of rocks and soils, and the presence of high levels of sodium bicarbonate in soils and waters are important factors favoring high levels of F in waters.     

Quality evaluation of groundwater in the North China Plain

This paper presents a method combining single-indicator comprehensive evaluation and influence factor identification to measure groundwater quality. This method not only reflects groundwater quality classification with clear physical significance, but also divides the possibilities of man-made pollution in regional groundwater. The paper selects 6 063 representative groundwater wells in the North China Plain to evaluate 49 groundwater inorganic and organic index and comes to a conclusion: Controlled by geological environment and hydrogeological conditions, the groundwater quality in the North China Plain deteriorates from the bottom of maintain to coastal area, with Class I to III groundwater decreasing from 49% to 3.9% while Class V groundwater increasing from 21% to 86.9%; the quality of deep groundwater is better than that of shallow groundwater; the contribution rate of manganese, total hardness, total dissolved solids and iodide in shallow groundwater to over-III type water exceeds 50%; the contribution rate of nitrite in pollution index reaches 20%; while heavy metal and organic indexes have limited impact on regional groundwater quality. The North China Plain is an important economic area in China. Over decades, it has witnessed intense human activities, and water resource quantity demanded has been far greater than quantity supplied. Due to scarce surface water resource, groundwater becomes the pillar supporting regional economic development. This has led to increasing groundwater exploitation and development. According to statistics, the exploitation degree of shallow groundwater reaches 105% in the North China Plain and 118% in the Hebei Plain; the exploitation degree of deep groundwater reaches 143% in the North China Plain and 163% in the Hebei Plain. The serious over-exploitation of groundwater brings various geological environmental problems, with the worsening of groundwater quality being a typical one. Besides impact brought by human activities, the poor quality of natural water in the North China Plain is also an important factor. Therefore, to understand the current regional groundwater quality situation and to master influence factors and influence degree can provide reliable scientific protection for regional economic development.     

内蒙古河套平原地下水砷异常分布规律研究

通过对内蒙古河套平原砷异常区的实际调查、现场取样、测试、室内实验以及数据分析,得出本区高砷地下水的分布具有明显的地带性,其中双庙和三道桥、沙海和蛮会、白脑包和狼山、塔尔湖及胜丰5片为高砷水地带,从西向东呈不连续的条带状展布,而且与盆地沉降中心带相一致。同时分析了高砷地下水的分布规律及其与古地理环境特征、地下水环境演化的关系。通过研究,可以看出以还原环境为主的富含有机质的湖沼相沉积环境、特定的地质、地形条件为地下水砷异常的原因。     

Geographic Information System and groundwater quality mapping in Panvel Basin,Maharashtra, India

Panvel Basin of Raigarh district, Maharashtra, India is the study area for groundwater quality mapping using the Geographic Information System (GIS). The study area is typically covered by Deccan basaltic rock types of Cretaceous to Eocene age. Though the basin receives heavy rainfall, it frequently faces water scarcity problems as well as water quality problems in some specific areas. Hence, a GIS based groundwater quality mapping has been carried out in the region with the help of data generated from chemical analysis of water samples collected from the basin. Groundwater samples show quality exceedence in terms of chloride, hardness, TDS and salinity. These parameters indicate the level of quality of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. Idrisi 32 GIS software was used for generation of various thematic maps and for spatial analysis and integration to produce the final groundwater quality map. The groundwater quality map shows fragments pictorially representing groundwater zones that are desirable and undesirable for drinking and irrigation purposes.     

Integrated approach for identification of potential groundwater zones in Seethanagaram Mandal of Vizianagaram District,Andhra Pradesh,India

Identifying a good site for groundwater exploration in hard rock terrain is a challenging task. In hard rocks, groundwater occurs in secondary porosity developed due to weathering, fracturing, faulting, etc., which is highly variable within short distance and contributing to near-surface inhomogeneity. In such situations topographic, hydrogeological and geomorphological features provide useful clues for the selection of suitable sites. Initially, based on satellite imagery, topographical, geomorphological and hydrogeological features, an area of about 149 km² was demarcated as a promising zone for groundwater exploration in the hard rock tract of Seethanagaram Mandal, Vizianagaram District, Andhra Pradesh, India. A total of 50 Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) were carried out using Wenner electrode configuration. An interactive interpretation of the VES data sharpened the information inferred from geomorphological and hydrogeological reconnaissance. Ten sites were recommended for drilling. Drilling with Down-The-Hole Hammer (DTH) was carried out at the recommended sites down to 50 to 70 m depths. The interpreted VES results matched well with the drilled bore well lithologs. The yields of bore wells vary from 900 to 9000 liters per hour (lph).     

Evaluation of hydrogeochemical processes in the Pleistocene aquifers of Middle Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India

Evaluation of major ion chemistry and solute acquisition process controlling water chemical composition were studied by collecting a total of fifty-one groundwater samples in shallow (<25 m) and deep aquifer (>25 m) in the Varanasi area. Hydrochemical facies, Mg-HCO₃ dominated in the largest part of shallow groundwater followed by Na-HCO₃ and Ca-HCO₃ whereas Ca-HCO₃ is dominated in deep groundwater followed by Mg-HCO₃ and Na-HCO₃. High As concentration (>50 μg/l) is found in some of the villages situated in northeastern parts (i.e. adjacent to the concave part of the meandering Ganga river) of the Varanasi area. Arsenic contamination is confined mostly in tube wells (hand pump) within the Holocene newer alluvium deposits, whereas older alluvial aquifers are having arsenic free groundwater. Geochemical modeling using WATEQ4F enabled prediction of saturation state of minerals and indicated dissolution and precipitation reactions occurring in groundwater. Majority of shallow and deep groundwater samples of the study area are oversaturated with carbonate bearing minerals and under-saturated with respect to sulfur and amorphous silica bearing minerals. Sluggish hydraulic conductivity in shallow aquifer results in higher mineralization of groundwater than in deep aquifer. But the major processes in deep aquifer are leakage of shallow aquifer followed by dominant ion-exchange and weathering of silicate minerals.