Assessment of salt affected soils in India using GIS

Salt affected soils are characterized by variable distribution and dynamic nature. Based on Landsat data from 1986/1987 supported by ground truth, salt affected soil maps were prepared at 1:250,000 scale for 14 states and a union territory (UT). A map legend was evolved that described the nature, degree and extent of salt affected soils suitable for varied physiographic and agroclimatic regions of the country. Fifteen categories of salt affected soil were identified for the entire country. These were merged to two categories – saline and sodic – for management purposes. Digitized maps were developed in a geographical information system (GIS) depicting salt affected areas of the country. An area of 6.73 million ha of salt affected soils was estimated for the entire country. State-wise estimates showed that this extensive area is distributed over the Gangetic plain of Uttar Pradesh; the arid and semiarid regions of Gujarat and the peninsular plains of Maharashtra state. A significant area is also located in the coastal region covering seven states. The salt affected soils are primarily saline in deltaic (C), coastal (D) and mud flats/mangrove swamps (G) and sodic in alluvial (A), aeofluvial/aeolian/arid (B) and peninsular (F) plains. The distribution of salt affected soils in agroclimatic zones (ACZs) showed occurrence in Gujarat plain, East Coast plains, Upper-Gangetic plain, Trans-Gangetic plain, Central Plateau, Lower-Gangetic plain and Southern Plateau of the country.     

Visual discrimination of surface features of salt affected soils using satellite images in arid region of Rajasthan (India)

The study has been carried for visual discrimination of natural salt affected soils on FCC images of IRS 1 B in Pali district of Rajasthan. The salt affected soils show wide variations in salinity (EC_2.53.7 to 28 dSm^-1), alkalinity (pH 8.5-9.8), cover ofP. juliflora (10-90%), salt tolerant grasses (10–55%) and gravelly surface (20–35%). ThoughP. juliflora and grasses were present at most of the observation points their cover decreased with soil EC_2.5 values more than 10 and 13 dSm^-1, respectively. Five darkness categories derived as the result of visual interpretation of FCCs; and ground and laboratory studies revealed that the darkness category 1 represented fewer plant community with high salinity (EC 28.7 dSm^-1) and gravelly surface, categories 2 and 3 were characterised by grass cover and moderate salt affected soils (EC 3-10 dSm^-1) whereas category 4 was dominated by thicket ofP. juliflora. The derived numerical darkness categories of the FCC images were slightly low for February images. The darkness values of observation pixel on February images correlated positively withP. juliflora cover and negatively with grass cover and soil pH indicating that surface features on FCC were related with the immediate observation pixels.     

Mapping of waterlogged areas and salt affected soils in the IGNP command area

Visual interpretation of IRS LISS-II data authenticated by ground truth was carried out for detection of waterlogged areas and characterization of salt-affected soils. The deep blue tone depicting surface ponding (stagnant ponded zone) resulted from the seepage and accumulation of irrigation water through the course sandy mass. Such unit was mostly confined to the localized low-lying areas. These data have also revealed interdunal seepage lake within the buried paleo-channel of Saraswati possibly due to submerging of excess Ghaggar floodwater. Flood irrigation, sandy soils, cultivation of high water requirement crops and presence of hard gypsiferrous pans in the shallow depths were responsible for development of waterlogged conditions in the area. The grey to yellowish white patch around the waterlogging features represented surface salt efflorescence. The grey to greyish red represented the potential waterlogging zone. Based on the analytical data, soils were characterized as moderate to highly saline and showed the presence of significant amount of CaCO₃ (>2 mm) throughout the solum. The chemical analysis of water samples revealed the presence of high to very high quantity of soluble salts dominated by chlorides and sulfates of sodium, calcium and magnesium.     

Computerized database on salt affected soils in western and central India using GIS

Salt affected soils occupy significant areas in western and central India manifested by the arid and semiarid climate, sandy/clayey soil texture, absence of natural drainage, and inadequate infrastructure and irrigation development. These soils are productive following reclamation and appropriate management. The National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad (India) published state-wise maps of salt affected soils in India on 1:250,000 scale using a legend that includes physiography, soil characteristics, and the aerial extent of the mapping units. In the analogue form, voluminous data contained in such maps were difficult to handle by users of varied backgrounds. An attempt was made to prepare a computerized database of salt affected soils for easy access, retrieval, and manipulation of spatial and attribute data useful for management of salt affected soils. The salt affected soils maps were prepared, for Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra states, overlaying digitized layers of SAS polygons and the Survey of India basemap using the ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) software. GIS was used to prepare a composite (master) database of western and central India that showed the extent and distribution of salt affected soils. A relational database was prepared combining the digitized polygons with soil characteristics such as nature and degree of salinity (presence of higher concentration of neutral salts and neutral soil reaction), sodicity (presence of higher concentration of basic salts and alkaline reaction) and ground coverage. The regional and zonal databases of salt affected soils were prepared at a suitable scale overlaying agro-climatic regions agro-climatic zones. Spatial relation of salt affected soils with physiography, climate, geology, and agro-eco-sub-regions were evaluated employing map calculations in GIS. Saline soils were prevalent in Gujarat, and Rajasthan while sodic soils were dominant in Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. These were distributed primarily in the arid (B) plain of Rajasthan, alluvial (A) and coastal (D) plains of Gujarat, and peninsular plain (F) of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. It occupied 2,596,942 ha (78%) in the western (Rajasthan and Gujarat) and 733,608 ha (22%) in the central (Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra) regions. The SAS occupied 3.3 million ha in the western and central region constituting 50% of the total salt affected soils in India. The saline and sodic soils occupied 2,069,285 ha (62%) and 1,261,266 ha (38%), respectively.     

Prospecting ground water resources using RS-GIS—A case study from arid western rajasthan of India

In arid regions, inherent climatic conditions and adverse terrain condition pose perpetual shortage of water. The dominant aeolian topography conceals older geological formations making it difficult to infer prospects of ground water and tapping the same. A ground water prospect map has been prepared for a part of Jodhpur district in western Rajasthan through integrated analysis of four major controlling factors: geology, geomorphology, structure and hydrology. Through visual interpretation of satellite data and using Geographical Information System, twenty-five hydro-geomorphic units (prospect units) have been delineated and mapped. Potential of each prospect unit have been discussed in reference to hydro-geomorphic units, their influence and well inventory like well yield, water table level and quality of drinking water. 34 % of the area was classified to have high groundwater potential and 5.8 % area was classified into low potential categories. Most of the area (60.2 %) is of moderate ground water potential.     

Characteristics and morphogenesis of salt-affected soils in southeastern arid Rajasthan

Aerial photographs coupled with ground check and laboratory analysis have helped in mapping of four categories of salt affected soils located in the southeastern tract of arid Rajasthan. The categories are (1) Natural saline soils (2) Relict saline soils (3) Secondary salinized soils due to high water table and (4) Secondary salinised soils due to highly saline water use for irrigation Salinity in natural salt affected soils is mostly sodium chloride followed by sodium-calcium chloride and sodium-chloride-sulphate type. The distribution of the natural salt affected soils along the natural drainage or inconspicuous depressional areas suggest that their occurrence is due to insufficient surface drainage. Further, the pattern of distribution indicates that the origin of salt is within the catchment itself. Deep ploughing and application of organic material have reversed the upward flux of salts and improved the soils. This phenomenon also seems to explain the large occurrence of soils of relict salinity.     

Spectral reflectance characteristics of salt-affected arid soils of Rajasthan

The spectral reflectance characteristics of different types of natural and anthropogenic salt-affected soils have been studied under field conditions. The spectral reflectance value for non-saline and all types of salt-affected soils was maximum in near infra red region (800–1000 nm). The natural salt-affected soils having surface salt encrustation showed highest reflectance value followed by the sodic soils (formed due to high residual sodium carbonate water irrigation) natural saline soils and saline soils due to saline water irrigation. Soil texture, pH, CaC0₃ and organic matter together accounted for 29.6% variation in the maximum reflectance percentage value out of which only pH accounted for more than half (14.2% variation).     

Application of IRS-1A data for delineating buried channels in Southern part of Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh

Two buried channels were identified in southern part of Allahabad district based on the visual interpretation of IRS-1 A LISS II FCC followed by detailed study of aerial photographs and cheks. It has been concluded on basis of the configuration of the channels that these were initially joined forming one channel which flowed from east to west although the present master slope of the area is from west to east. The present reversal of the drainage might have been caused by the neo-tectonic activity in the area. The buried channels provide potential ground water reservoirs in the area as proved by a few boreholes drilled on the channels. Some part of the area has become waterlogged due to the seepage of water from the canals cutting across one of the buried channels.     

Impact assessment of industrial effluent of arid soils by using satellite imageries

Visual interpretation ofIRS-LISS-II (1:50,000 Scale) FCC, band 2, 3 and 4 was carried out for the Industrial effluence assessment on soils (21900 ha) along the Bandi river course in Pali district of arid Rajasthan. Very severe (4378 ha), severe (3427 ha), moderate (5856 ha) and slight (1388 ha) categories of anthropogenic salt affected soils with the varied image characteristics in conjunction with ground truth Have been identified and delineated from satellite imagery. The morphological and physico-chemical characteristics revealed that very severe category soil has thick salt crust dominantly in light gray color at surface, manifestation of strong sub-angular to angular blocky structure, extra-ordinary hardness, high ECe, SAR and ESP but low pHs. Severe category soils have light brownish gray colour at surface, manifestation of strong angular to columnar structure, high Ece, pHs, SAR and ESP but slightly lower than very severe category.Moderate category soils have light brownish gray colour at surface, moderate to strong manifestation of prismatic structure, low ECe but high pHs, moderate to high SAR and ESP.Slight category soils have pale brown colour and hard crust at surface, moderate hardness with the tendency to form weak prismatic structure in subsoil, low ECe (<4dSm^-) but moderate pHs. The cations and anaions in saturation extract was in the order of Na⁺>Ca⁺⁺ > Mg⁺⁺ > K⁺ and Cl^- > SO₄ ^-- > HCO₃ ^-- > CO₃ ^--, respectively and salinity/sodicity was Sodium-Chloride-Sulfate type. Dynamics of salt accumulation, available nutrient status and amelioration measures required for their reclamation and improvement has been discussed in this paper.     

Utility of image point cloud data towards generating enhanced multitemporal multisensor land cover maps

Multitemporal land cover classification over urban areas is challenging, especially when using heterogeneous data sources with variable quality attributes. A prominent challenge is that classes with similar spectral signatures (such as trees and grass) tend to be confused with one another. In this paper, we evaluate the efficacy of image point cloud (IPC) data combined with suitable Bayesian analysis based time-series rectification techniques to improve the classification accuracy in a multitemporal context. The proposed method uses hidden Markov models (HMMs) to rectify land covers that are initially classified by a random forest (RF) algorithm. This land cover classification method is tested using time series of remote sensing data from a heterogeneous and rapidly changing urban landscape (Kuopio city, Finland) observed from 2006 to 2014. The data consisted of aerial images (5 years), Landsat data (all 9 years) and airborne laser scanning data (1 year). The results of the study demonstrate that the addition of three-dimensional image point cloud data derived from aerial stereo images as predictor variables improved overall classification accuracy, around three percentage points. Additionally, HMM-based post processing reduces significantly the number of spurious year-to-year changes. Using a set of 240 validation points, we estimated that this step improved overall classification accuracy by around 3.0 percentage points, and up to 6 to 10 percentage points for some classes. The overall accuracy of the final product was 91% (kappa = 0.88). Our analysis shows that around 1.9% of the area around Kuopio city, representing a total area of approximately 0.61 km², experienced changes in land cover over the nine years considered.     

Visual interpretation of computer transformed Landsat imagery for salt affected areas of part of Haryana

In the present study an attempt has been made to interpret visually the computer transformed, FCC, PC₁-PC₂ and Δ method products, landsat imagery of different seasons and with different crop cover, of salt affected areas of part of Haryana. FCC and PC₁-PC₂ of moist hot climate (10 October, 1972) was found better for physiographic interpretation than other seasons and bands, Δ method (October. 1972) and FCC of hot-dry season were good only for interpreting salt affected areas whereas other landform features were suppressed. Not much additional information was gained by way of PC₁-PC₂ and Δ method transformation over FCC (bands 4, 5, 7). It was possible to delineate different classes of salt effected soils based on the areal extent of the hazard.     

Landsat mss data as base for mapping coastal soils

A Soil map at 1:250,000 scale was prepared for a part of Prakasam District (Andhra Pradesh) along the east coast using Landsat MSS data through monoscopic visual interpretation in conjunctionwith collateral information and limited field check. In general, a fair amount of correlation among physiography, image elements and soils was found. Anomalies with respect to the above correlation wherever noticed are also discussed.     

Distribution analysis of salt affected soils under canal and non-canal command area in a part of Etah district,U. P., using remote sensing technique

A World Bank-aided project on sodic land reclamation in Uttar Pradesh is being executed by U.P. Bhumi Sudhar Nigam, Lucknow, and Remote Sensing Applications Centre, U.P., Lucknow has the responsibility of sodic land mapping for the execution of land reclamation programme at the cadastral level. Sodic lands are mainly concentrated in the Gangetic alluvial plains but the problem of sodicity is particularly acute in the canal-irrigated areas. A study of the distribution pattern of sodic lands in canal and noncanal command areas in a reclamation site (covering 60 villages out of which sodic lands were mapped in 51 villages) of Etah district in Uttar Pradesh, indicates that 18.39 per cent area of the canal command villages was barren sodic which was 13.41 per cent of the total geographical area of the site (15417 ha), however, 11.69 per cent area was recorded to be barren sodic in the non-canal command villages which was only 3.16 per cent of the geographical area of the site. The results of soil chemical analysis indicate that barren sodic lands of canal command area are saline-sodic with higher concentration of soluble salts (pH₂ >8.5, EC₂ >4 dSm⁻¹), however, those of non-canal command area are sodic (pH₂ >8.5, EC₂ <4 dSm⁻¹). The post-monsoon ground level in the canal-irrigated areas was in the critical and semicritical zone (< 3.0 mbgl) whereas it was well below the semi-critical zone in the non-canal command area, which indicates that the high ground water level is a major factor to higher the area under sodicity.     

Forms of aeolian sandy deposits in parts of rajasthan based on aerial photo-interpretation

Aerial photographs are invaluable for study of terrain characteristics which are reflected in the morphology-form and association of different physiographic units in any area. Based on environmental controls of geology, relief, dominant geomorphic process and climate, a system of landscape classification has been evolved. Characteristic physiographic units in any area are identified and defined based on their form, slope variations, orientation, spacing, surficial deposits and water regime. Only two units i.e. landscape pattern and facet are adopted in the classification system. The dominant aeolian process evolves a variety of forms and associations. The most important forms evolved are long sandy ridges with variation in spacing and directions, shifting sand dunes-both scattered and in clusters and various combinations of short sandy ridges. The paper describes the form, assocation and characteristics of one of the landscape patterns classified in the desert area. The norms established on the basis of aerial photo-interpretation thus help to infer terrain characteristics at different places where the pattern occurs.     

Multiscale mapping of burn area and severity using multisensor satellite data and spatial autocorrelation analysis

Traditional methods of recording fire burned areas and fire severity involve expensive and time-consuming field surveys. Available remote sensing technologies may allow us to develop standardized burn-severity maps for evaluating fire effects and addressing post fire management activities. This paper focuses on multiscale characterization of fire severity using multisensor satellite data. To this aim, both MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) data have been processed using geo-statistic analyses to capture pattern features of burned areas.Even if in last decades different authors tried to integrate geo-statistics and remote sensing image processing, methods used since now are only variograms, semivariograms and kriging. In this paper, we propose an approach based on the use of spatial indicators of global and local autocorrelation. Spatial autocorrelation statistics, such as Moran's I and Getis–Ord Local Gi index, were used to measure and analyze dependency degree among spectral features of burned areas. This approach enables the characterization of pattern features of a burned area and improves the estimation of fire severity.     

Application of remote sensing data in characterization and mapping of soil resources for watershed planning in arid Western Rajasthan

Visual interpretation of IRS-L1SS-II (January, 1995) FCC (1:50,000 scale) of spectral bands 2, 3 and 4 was carried out for the identification and mapping of major physiographic units in an arid watershed of Jodhpur district (Rajasthan). Based on image characteristics and field traverses, seven major physiographic units identified are (1) hills (2) pediments, flat to undulating (3) buried pediments, moderately deep to deep, coarse textured (4) buried pediment, shallow to moderately deep and deep, medium to fine textured, saline (5) older alluvial plains, deep and very deep, coarse textured (6) younger alluvial plains, deep to very deep, very coarse textured and (7) dune complexes. Based on physiographicvariatton and soil or site characteristics such as texture, depth, slope, erosion and underneath substrata, 41 soil mapping units were identified and mapped. Final physiography, soil, slope, drainage and landuse maps were prepared on 1:5,000 scale. Taxonomically, the soils of the watershed were classified as Para-Lithic Torriorthents, coarse-loamy, Lithic/Typic Haplocambids, fine-loamy, Lithic/Typic Haplosalids and Typic Torrifluvents and Typic Torripsamments. Land suitability for various mapping units in the watershed have been assessed on the basis of soil physico-chemical characteristics.     

轨迹压缩的典型方法评价

轨迹大数据的关键瓶颈之一是轨迹数据海量的数据规模对轨迹的分析、挖掘和应用的限制,因而各类针对轨迹数据的压缩方法是轨迹大数据研究的重点。现有轨迹压缩算法重视对轨迹数据的单一维度时空特征的保持,而缺乏压缩算法对多维度时空特征影响的研究。本文选取MBR面积误差、距离误差、方向误差、速度误差、压缩率和压缩速度等轨迹数据多维度时空特征,分别从轨迹的几何特征、运动特征和压缩效率3个层面对典型轨迹压缩方法进行评价。同时,为了系统观察轨迹压缩算法在不同压缩尺度上对轨迹时空特征的影响规律,本文采用多个尺度压缩结果的评价方法。研究结果表明,在整体效果上那些考虑了轨迹运动特征的压缩算法（如TD_TR算法）对轨迹的总体时空特征保持较好;并且不同的压缩算法对时空特征的影响总体上具有随着尺度变化的一致性,可见压缩尺度是决定压缩效果的核心因素。     

Spectral reflectance of some typical Indian soils as affected by tillage and cover types

Measuring spectral reflectance of soils in situ which simulates measurements made from aircraft and by satellite scanner system has become an integral part of soil mapping using remote sensing techniques. A preliminary study has been conducted to measure the spectral reflectance of some typical red and black soils of India using a field radiometer (EXOTECH-100-A) and to study the changes in specrtral reflectance patterns due to tillage and crop and non-crop cover, The spectral reflectance were measured in four different pands of electromagnetic spectrum—two in visible (0.5-0.6μ and 0.6-0.7μ) and two in infrared (0.7-0.8μ and 0.8-1.0μ) region. Spectral reflectance curves were drawn from these values which helped in understanding the spectral separability and mixing of various red and black soil types. Black soils having grass cover showed maximum reflectance value followed by ploughed one and bare counterparts whereas, the order of decrease in spectral reflectance of red soils was bare soils> ploughed soil> soils with grass cover.     

Evaluation and use of Resourcesat-I data for agricultural applications

Resourcesat-1 satellite offers a unique opportunity of simultaneous observations at three different spatial scales through LISS-IV, LISS-III^* (improved LISS-III) and AWiFS sensors from a common platform. The sensors have enhanced capabilities in terms of spectral, spatial and radiometric resolution as compared to earlier Indian Remote sensing Satellite sensors. This paper summarizes the results of various studies such as evaluation of sensor characteristics, inter-sensor comparison studies, derivation and validation of surface reflectance measurements, quantification of improvements due to Resourcesat-1 sensors, and their use for various agricultural applications. The studies presented in this paper demonstrate that suit of sensors onboard Resourcesat-1 satellite provides better prospects for several agricultural applications like crop identification, discrimination and crop inventory for some major Indian crops, than its predecessors on IRS satellites.