西藏南部上白垩统高分辨率全岩碳同位素地层学

西藏南部上白垩统半远洋沉积高分辨率碳、氧同位素实验结果显示：δ^13C值在Cenomanian末期正偏并形成正偏“高原”,从Turonian期开始总体呈现长期持续负偏,到Campanian早期负偏达到最低值。这种长期变化格局与世界有关地区的碳同位素偏移和同期全球海侵海退旋回型式匹配性甚好,印证了晚白垩世δ^13C值长期偏移趋势可作为大区域乃至全球海平面变化的指针。短期δ^13C值波动方面,Cenomanian末期、Turonian中一晚期、Turonian-Santonian界线时期、Campanian期都存在与世界相关地区的可比性,但Coniacian-Santonian期全球碳同位素偏移型式存在较大差异。     

西藏特提斯喜马拉雅白垩纪中期Cenomanian-Turonian期碳同位素偏移

过去大量关于白垩纪中期Cenomanian-Turonian晴期的古海洋及其界线时期缺氧事件研究的高分辨率碳氧同位素的实际材料绝大多数都来自深海钻探(DSDlP)、大洋钻探(0DP)和欧美的一些较深水盆地．通过对西藏南部地区(位处特提斯洋东南)同一层位高分辨率碳同位素分析,目的在于为Cenomanian-Turonian古海洋及全球事件的碳同位素响应提供西藏地区的对比材料,并试图就浅海相的变化情况进行探讨．西藏定日和岗巴地区的高分辨率碳同位素分析结果显示．δ^13C值在Cenomanian中晚期稳定,Cenomanian-Turonian界线时期快速高幅正偏,Turonian期持续负偏,这种长期变化趋势在特提斯甚至全球可以对比．深入研究还发现,Turonian中后期存在2个较大幅度的负偏凹陷区,与来自欧洲的相关资料在偏移时间和幅度方面惊人相似．对比分析表明,岗巴地区δ^13C值长期变化和短期波动幅度及步调与定日及全球其他地区存在一定差别,幅度差异可能与样品制备和成岩改造有关,步调不一致则可能受生物地层定位的影响．研究区近海一半远洋环境Cenomanian-Turonian界线时期未出现典型富有机质黑色页岩,说明δ^13C值极度正偏与黑色页岩的出现并非一对应．     

泥盆纪海相碳酸盐岩碳同位素组成及演变

根据对六景泥盆系碳酸盐岩碳同位素组成的系统分析表明：从落霍柯夫期到布拉格期海洋中的δ~１３Ｃ是逐渐变重，埃姆斯期明显变轻．艾菲尔期又开始变重，特别是基维特期有较明显的正向偏移，并继续向上变重，至弗拉斯期与法门期之交达到最大，尔后逐渐变轻，反映了泥盆纪海洋碳同位素组成的演变趋势．这和泥盆纪（二级）海平面的变化趋势是基本一致的，反映海洋碳同位素组成与海平面变化及相关的气候和海洋、大气中ＣＯ_２含量的成因联系。弗拉斯阶－法门阶界线附近δ~１３Ｃ的变化型式表明其间发生的生物绝灭事件是海平面升降和缺氧环境的周期性扩展等因素的累积效应的结果．     

羌塘中生代盆地大洋缺氧事件及全球对比

位于藏北高原的羌塘盆地保存了我国最大面积的侏罗纪海相盆地,记录了较为完整的中生代海相序列。在羌塘中生代（T3—K1）盆地演化过程中,发生了多次水体缺氧事件,这些缺氧事件是全球大洋缺氧事件在羌塘盆地的反映。本文对这些缺氧事件的最新研究成果进行了介绍。羌塘盆地海相T—J界线剖面的碳同位素表现为两次明显的负偏异常,对应于全球T—J典型界线剖面碳同位素的“初始负偏移”和“主要负偏移”,T—J之交水体由氧化环境变为缺氧环境。在盆地演化早期,在毕洛错地区识别出早侏罗世托儿期碳同位素负偏异常,可与全球早侏罗世托尔期大洋缺氧事件的碳同位素负偏进行精确地对比,揭示了早侏罗世托儿期全球缺氧事件在羌塘盆地的普遍性。在盆地演化晚期,海水逐渐从北羌塘拗陷西北部退出盆地,广泛沉积了一套黑色页岩、油页岩、泥岩及泥灰岩的岩石组合,碳同位素特征可与南特提斯、北特提斯及西北特提斯对应时期的碳同位素相对比,是早白垩世巴雷姆期全球大洋缺氧事件在羌塘盆地的反映。     

广西上泥盆统F-F界线碳同位素的变化特征

发生在晚泥盆世弗拉期(Frasnian)-法门期(Famennian)之交的生物灭绝事件(简称F-F事件)是古生代以来五大生物集群灭绝事件之一,其原因仍含糊不清。碳同位素研究显示,伴随F-F事件全球碳循环发生了显著的变化。但对中国南方F-F事件地层碳同位素变化特征的认识不够,缺乏系统的研究。对广西桂林杨堤上泥盆统灰岩剖面的碳同位素的分析结果表明,在上泥盆统存在两次碳同位素正偏移,分别出现在下rhenana带和F-F的界线,其中,出现在F-F界线的碳同位素正偏移与广西垌村以及欧美和非洲等地的上泥盆统F-F界线附近的碳同位素记录一致,且具有相近的变化幅度。进一步对广西桂林附近的杨堤和垌村剖面F-F界线的碳同位素组成变化模式的分析发现,这次正偏移可能是由多次次级变化组成,与F-F事件中生物的灭绝步骤相似。     

泥盆纪海水的碳、氧同位素变化——来自腕足化石的同位素记录

生物壳体中的碳、氧同位素一直被用来反演地质历史时期海水同位素组成。具有较强抵抗成岩后生作用(低镁方解石)的腕足化石,分布广泛,被认为是反演古生代海水同位素的理想样品之一。本文通过对四川龙门山泥盆纪保存完好的腕足化石碳、氧同位素的提取,建立该时期海水同位素变化曲线,并对其控制因素进行探讨。研究显示：碳同位素组成在~2‰~+2‰(PDB下同)之间变化。其间经历3个旋回,其相对高值分别对应龙门山地区其中3个成礁期。同时因海平面变化不同,碳同位素表现出正偏幅度的不同。表明生物生长以及海平面变化共同控制着海水碳同位素组成,且生物生长对其影响较大。氧同位素组成在4‰~ -10‰之间变化。在埃姆斯阶对应的甘溪组、谢家湾组以及二台子组时期,氧同位素从-10‰逐渐升高到-6‰。但相对于世界其他地区该时期氧同位素偏低-2‰~ -4‰。可能原因是早期处于封闭海洋环境的平驿铺群时期,淡水注入造成海水氧同位素严重偏负。埃姆斯阶全球海平面上升,广海海水同化作用,氧同位素不断上升。从养马坝至小岭坡组时段内,氧同位素在-4‰~ -6‰之间变化,同世界其他地区相当。其幅度变化表明：温度可能是其控制因素。     

江西东岭剖面P-T界线碳同位素变化与沉积物输入的关系

二叠纪末期发生了显生宙以来规模最大的生物灭绝事件,利用江西修水东岭剖面二叠-三叠系界线的碳同位素、主量元素及微量元素分别研究全球碳循环的变化及其相对应的物源的变化进而分析环境变化与生物灭绝的关系。研究结果表明,东岭剖面二叠-三叠系界线存在阶梯式碳同位素负偏,第一阶段阶梯式负偏幅度为2‰,第二阶段阶梯式负偏幅度为2.5‰,总的负偏幅度高达4.5‰。在阶段阶梯式碳同位素负偏过程,碳酸盐岩中的硅酸盐组分物源由基性火成岩转变为岛弧性质的酸性火成岩。后者可能与我国华南周围岛弧火山喷发有关。这些碳同位素负偏在时间上与物源的转变及火山灰层基本一致,推测其与我国华南岛弧火山及西伯利亚大火成岩省喷发有关。大规模火山作用喷出或诱发出的二氧化碳及甲烷温室气体有可能是造成二叠-三叠系阶梯式碳同位素负偏的主要原因。火山喷发造成的环境恶化如全球变暖、海洋缺氧、海洋酸化、植被破坏形成的大量沉积物输入海洋致使生物生存压力增大,从而造成二叠末期生物的大灭绝。     

白垩纪缺氧事件期间分子有机碳同位素偏移的二种不同机制

对我国业已发现的白垩纪大洋缺氧事件进行了对比研究.结果显示,我国河北滦平盆地高等植物叶腊碳同位素正偏,是weissert缺氧事件的陆地响应,weissert缺氧事件可能是全球性缺氧事件,而不是区域性的缺氧事件.叶腊烷烃单分子碳同位素正偏有两种不同的机制:早白垩世分子碳同位素正偏主要反映的是大气CO2水平增加;晚白垩世分子碳同位素正偏主要反映的是陆地植物类型的变化.     

西藏聂拉木三叠系土隆群-曲龙共巴组稳定碳同位素组成及对比

古生代-中生代之交生物灭绝后,三叠纪海洋长期、复杂的生物和环境变化过程受到高度关注.基于牙形石、菊石生物时代及土隆地区三叠系全岩稳定碳同位素曲线,识别出6次负偏和5次正偏.其中早三叠世碳同位素的N1-N4四次负偏和P1-P4四次正向偏移过程,能与我国华南、日本等多个剖面进行对应,反映我国藏南所在的高纬度地区经历了与低纬度地区相同的全球碳循环异常.首次报道了土隆剖面识别出的晚三叠世卡尼期碳同位素负偏,其幅度达到3.3‰,可对应意大利、日本以及我国川西北地区和华南南盘江盆地所记录的卡尼期极端气候事件.中卡尼期温度升高,降雨量急剧增多,风化作用显著加强,陆源硅质碎屑输入增强,可能是土隆剖面岩性剧烈变化的环境驱动因素.      

渝东地区寒武系龙王庙组高分辨率碳酸盐岩碳同位素记录及其古海洋学意义

早寒武世中―晚期是生命演化史上的重要节点。渝东地区寒武系龙王庙组海相碳酸盐岩地层记录了当时海水的碳同位素变化。在确保碳同位素组成有效保留海水原始信息基础上,分析发现龙王庙组61个碳酸盐岩样品的δ~(13)CV-PDB值分布在+2.7‰~-4.3‰之间;碳同位素变化曲线大体上呈先降低、后升高的变化趋势;地层中―下部δ~(13)C值波动幅度大,正、负漂移事件频发,出现可全球对比的幅度约为4‰的正漂移与幅度约为5‰的负漂移事件;地层上部δ~(13)C值具小幅波动,总体正偏。龙王庙组碳酸盐岩的碳同位素特征,受控于海平面变化、风暴沉积、生物演化引起的海洋生产力变化。龙王庙组沉积的早―中期,海平面变化频繁,陆源碎屑注入量波动性增大,风暴沉积发育,海洋环境的稳定性较差,生物种属数量逐渐降低,导致海洋原始生产力下降及碳同位素组成的频繁波动与多次负漂移事件。龙王庙组沉积的中―晚期,海平面长期缓慢上升,风暴沉积发育程度低,海洋环境趋于稳定,生物多样性增强,海洋原始生产力增大,使得碳同位素组成分布较为稳定,多表现为正值。渝东地区龙王庙组碳酸盐岩中δ~(13)C的急速负漂移可能归因于较浅水体、较充足陆源碎屑注入背景下的风暴沉积。     

藏南定日地区白垩纪中期地球化学异常对海平面上升的响应

西藏南部定日地区在白垩纪中期为一套浅灰色-深灰色的陆源碎屑岩（钙质页岩）及碳酸盐岩（泥灰岩及微晶灰岩）的混积型沉积物，其中的地球化学特征变化反映了古海洋发生的重大变革。δ¹³ C的同位素曲线变化具有明显的低-高-低旋回变化，δ¹³ C正偏与有机碳大量埋藏、海平面上升及缺氧事件密切相关。铀、钍、钾的含量变化及Th/U比值的变化特征表明由海平面上升所形成的全球大洋缺氧的重要时期，由于有机物质及粘土矿物的增多，它们的含量均比标准平均值偏高。而⁸⁷Sr/ ⁸⁶Sr比值在该时期偏低，这也与当时的构造背景及海平面发生重大变化相一致。     

The oceanic anoxic event 2 at Es Souabaa (Tebessa,NE Algeria): bio-events and stable isotope study

At the southern margin of the Tethys, the Es Souabaa area recorded traces of Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE2) around the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary (C/Tb). The dark, laminated, filament- and pyrite-bearing limestones represent the typical facies of this event. In terms of sedimentary environment, these features reflect a transgressive drowning that had induced hypoxia in these sedimentary environments. Such conditions favored the deposition and preservation of organic matter of marine origin, the distribution of which was controlled by paleogeography and halokinetic tectonics at that period. The OAE2 reached a climax between the last upper Cenomanian occurrence of Rotalipora cushmani and the lower Turonian occurrence of Whiteinella praehelvetica. Positive shift of the δ¹³C excursion along with relatively high total organic carbon (TOC) contents during OAE2 both indicate palaeo-environmental modifications enhanced by a significant change in primary marine productivity. Meanwhile, negative δ¹⁸O peaks in carbonates reflect increasing temperatures. Comparison of the data from this study with those from the neighboring Kalaat Senan section (Tunisia) suggests close similarities of events, although OAE2 is much more enhanced in Algeria.     

Chemostratigraphy of the Cenomanian-Turonian shallow-water carbonate: new correlation for the rudist levels from north Sinai,Egypt

The present study aims to provide carbon-isotope curves for the Cenomanian to Turonian rudist-dominated successions in north Sinai. The high-resolution carbon-isotope curves obtained from north Sinai sections provide new insight for calibrating the age of rudists as well as for evaluating the effects of the oceanic anoxic event 2 (OAE2) on rudist communities. The primary goals are (1) to provide a high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework for the Cenomanian-Turonian succession, (2) to use rudist and ammonite biostratigraphic data to distinguish the stratigraphic levels of the rudist species, and (3) to integrate the chemostratigraphic (δ¹³C) profile and the rudist levels to improve the biostratigraphy based on the rudist distributions and the carbon-isotope data. The recognition of three ammonite zones through the Cenomanian-Turonian succession was utilized to identify four temporally significant rudist levels indicative of the Lower Cenomanian, Middle Cenomanian, Upper Cenomanian, and Middle Turonian, respectively. Most of the rudists occur in the highstand deposits of medium-scale sequences. Carbon- and oxygen-isotopic analyses were carried out on both rudists and surrounding carbonate units. Based on the variations in the carbon-isotope signals, 12 chronostratigraphic segments were identified in the studied sections. The Cenomanian carbon-isotope segments (C23–C30) were obtained from the Halal Formation at Gabal Yelleg and Gabal Maaza sections, while the Turonian segments (C30–C34) were measured from the Wata Formation at Gabal Yelleg section. The carbon-isotope record from the studied sections is consistent with the trends documented in previous studies of the Tethyan realm. The Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is placed at the onset of falling carbon-isotope values (δ¹³C) from 2.61 to ?0.25‰ in the upper part of OAE2 with the carbon-isotope segment C30 at Gabal Yelleg. The negative shift in δ¹³C values (C33) occurred in the Middle Turonian lowstand deposits characterizing the global sea level fall during this interval.     

Biostratigraphic and isotopic record of the Cenomanian–Turonian deposits in the Ohaba-Ponor section (SW Haţeg, Romania)

The middle Cenomanian–lower Turonian deposits of Ohaba-Ponor section (Southern Carpathians) were studied from biostratigraphic and isotopic points of view. Both the qualitative and semiquantitative nannofloral analyses, as well as the stable isotope (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O) data support significant palaeoenvironmental changes in the investigated interval. Two δ¹³C positive excursions were recognized: (1) an excursion up to 1.8‰ (PDB) within the middle/late Cenomanian boundary; (2) an excursion up to 2.2‰ (PDB) in the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary interval. The oldest δ¹³C positive excursion recorded (placed within the Acanthoceras jukes-brownei/Eucalycoceras pentagonum Ammonite Zone boundary interval, and in the NC11 Calcareous Nannofossil Zone respectively) could be assigned to the middle Cenomanian Event II (MCEII). During the above-mentioned event, significant increase in abundance of Watznaueria barnesae, followed by successive blooms of Biscutum constans and Eprolithus floralis, were observed. The youngest δ¹³C positive excursion was identified in the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary interval (in the NC12 and lower part of the NC13 Calcareous Nannofossil Zones). Even the amplitude of this δ¹³C positive excursion is lower in the Ohaba-Ponor section, as generally reported, this may represent the regional record of the OAE2. The successive peaks of the nannofossils Biscutum constans, Zeugrhabdotus erectus and Eprolithus floralis indicate episodes of cooler surface water and high fertility, which preceded and lasted the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary event. Additionally, fluctuations of δ¹⁸O values between −2 and −6‰ suggest also cooler conditions within the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary interval.     

Stable isotope analysis of the Cenomanian–Turonian (Late Cretaceous) oceanic anoxic event in the Crimea

Carbon and oxygen isotope data from Cenomanian–Turonian sediments from the southwest of the Crimea are presented. The sediments consist of limestones, marls and organic-rich claystones, the latter with total organic carbon values up to 2.6 wt. %, representing Oceanic Anoxic Event 2. A shift to more negative δ¹⁸O values through the uppermost Cenomanian into the lowermost Turonian may be the result of warming; however, petrographic analysis shows that the samples have undergone a degree of diagenetic alteration. The carbon isotope data reveal a positive excursion from 2.7‰ to a peak of 4.3‰ at the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary; values then decrease in the early Turonian. This excursion is comparable to those of other Cenomanian–Turonian sections, such as those seen in the Anglo-Paris Basin, and is thought to be due to global changes in the oceanic carbon reservoir. On this curve are a number of negative δ¹³C excursions, just below the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary. It is suggested that these negative excursions are associated with the uptake of light carbon derived from the oxidation and deterioration of organic material during localised exposure of the sediments to oxic or meteoric diagenetic conditions, possibly during sea-level fluctuations.     

Turonian to Santonian carbon isotope data from the Tethys Himalaya, southern Tibet

New stable carbon and oxygen isotope data from an Upper Cretaceous section in Tibet are presented, and compared to carbon isotope records from England, Italy, and Germany. Together with a stratigraphic re-interpretation of published carbon isotope data from a nearby section in Tibet, our data can surprisingly well be correlated with the European sections. This indicates that, similar to the distinct positive carbon isotope excursion at the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary, also the broad positive carbon isotope shift in the middle-late Coniacian and early Santonian reflects a major perturbation of the carbon cycle on a global scale, even though organic-rich sediments related to the OAE3 appear to be mainly restricted to the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent basins. The data further show that, apart from the broad Coniacian-Santonian carbon isotope excursion, also isotopic shifts on a smaller scale in the Turonian and Coniacian, such as the Round Down, Pewsey, and Hitchwood Events, can be correlated over both hemispheres. This demonstrates that the development of global oceanic anoxic conditions and associated burial of large amounts of organic carbon do not constitute a prerequisite for globally reflected carbon isotopic shifts. The data from Tibet support the concept of a relation between main carbon isotope excursions and major sea-level variations. Cyclic fluctuations of geochemical and lithological parameters are likely to be orbitally driven. These cycles appear to be preferably reflected in the sediments during periods of lower or variable sea-level, whereas the ocean-atmosphere system seems to have operated in a different mode during long phases of high, stable sea-level, as during the Coniacian-Santonian OAE3.     

Carbon Isotope Features of the Sugetbrak Section in the Aksu?Wushi Area, Northwest China: Implications for the Precambrian/Cambrian Stratigraphic Correlations

The upper Qigeblaq Formation （Fm） dolostones and the Yurtus Fm phosphatic cherts, black shales, limestones, and dolostones are widely distributed in the Precambrian/Cambrian transitional succession of the Aksu-Wushi area. Negative δ13C excursion above the Yurtus Fm/ Qigeblaq Fm boundary was determined in this study. The pronounced negative carbon isotope excursion occurs in the phosphatic chert layers at the bottom of the Cambrian Yurtus Fm, below which the first appearance of the Asteridium- Heh＇osphaeridium-Comasphaeridium （AHC） acritarch assemblage zone. The δ13C curve of the lower part of the Yurtus Fm in the Aksu-Wushi area was found to be correlated with the early Cambrian δ13C curves of the Zhujiaqing Fm （Daibu Member）, the lower part of the Yanjiahe Fm on the Yangtze Platform in China, the lower Tal Fm in India, the Sukharikha Fm in Siberia, and the upper part of the Tsagaan Oloom Fm in Mongolia through biostigraphy. The lower part of the Yurtus Fm in the Tarim Basin is at the Nemakit-Daldynian stage, and the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary of the Aksu-Wushi area may be located in the phosphatic chert unit which just below the first appearance AHC acritarch assemblage zone. The negative δ13C excursion （N1） across the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary in the studied section may have resulted from oceanic overturning and sea level rise.     

藏南定日地区Cenomanian/Turonian界线附近的生物古海洋事件

藏南定日地区在白垩纪中期发育一套浅灰色深灰色的以钙质页岩、泥灰岩及微晶灰岩为主的浅海陆棚相沉积,岩石中除含较高的粘土矿物及陆源石英矿物颗粒以外,还含有十分丰富的有孔虫化石。依据浮游有孔虫Helvetoglobotruncana praehelvetica的首次出现将C/T界线置于样品9922及9923之间,该界线位于Whiteinella archaeocretacea化石带之中。通过定量分析,该区有孔虫的丰度、分异度以及浮游与底栖有孔虫比率、具旋脊与不具旋脊有孔虫的比率等指标在剖面纵向上表现出3个明显的演化阶段,即Rotalipora cushmani带上部、W.archaeocretacea带及H.helvetica带下部,有孔虫动物群的变化特征完整地记录了C/T界线附近古海洋事件的全过程。该次事件中,碳稳定同位素δ¹³C值存在着明显的异常变化——正向偏移,元素地球化学U、Th及K的丰度也表现出明显的异常变化,其丰度值均比标准平均值偏高。所有这些特征均是在全球洋脊迅速扩张这一背景下海平面发生剧烈变化的结果。     

Turonian ammonites from northwestern Aquitaine,France

The position of the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary is established for the first time in Charente-Maritime, northwestern Aquitaine (France), on the basis of ammonite occurrences and the δ¹³C isotope curve, corresponding to Oceanic Anoxic Event 2, that straddles the boundary. The earliest Turonian ammonites recognised are a monospecific occurrence of the early early Turonian pseudotissotiine Bageites bakui Zaborski, 1998, previously known only from northern Nigeria. Newly collected material and well-preserved specimens from existing collections supplement previous records, and include species of Placenticeras, Morrowites, Kamerunoceras, Romaniceras (Romaniceras), Spathites (Jeanrogericeras), Mammites, Fagesia, Neoptychites, Choffaticeras (Leoniceras), Collignoniceras and Lecointriceras. These confirm the presence of the upper lower Turonian nodosoides Zone and the lower middle Turonian turoniense and kallesi zones/subzones of authors.     

An integrated study of upper Campanian-lower Maastrichtian carbon isotopes and calcareous plankton biostratigraphy of the Kurdistan Region,northeastern Iraq

New carbon (δ¹³C) isotope records calibrated by planktonic bioevents provide general support for a late Campanian age assignment of the Shiranish Formation (Fm.) and its boundaries in the Dokan section (NE Iraq). The Shiranish Fm. is characterised at the base by a mid-Campanian unconformity as can be interpreted by absences of nannofossil zones CC20-21. The Shiranish Fm. then spans nannofossil biozones CC22-CC23a (UC15d-e^TP to UC16a^TP). Results obtained on carbon isotopes suggest that diagenesis affected and compromised a few carbonate samples in the uppermost 50 m of the section. However, once these samples are discarded, pristine trends suggest that the top of the section records a negative carbon isotope excursion that is interpreted as CMBa-c events that straddle the Campanian–Maastrichtian boundary. This interpretation is supported by the lowermost occurrence of planktic foraminifers Rugoglobigerina scotti and Contusotruncana contusa some 30 m above the base of the negative excursion and 10 m below a positive excursion identified as the Maastrichtian M1+ event. Discrepancies in the stratigraphic range of several planktic foraminifer bioevents are highlighted and advocate for the need of many more integrated records of planktic foraminifer and nannofossil biostratigraphy alongside carbon isotope stratigraphy in the eastern Tethys in order to improve regional and global schemes.