A high resolution imaging detector for TeV gamma-ray astronomy

Details are presented of an atmospheric Cherenkov telescope for use in very high energy gamma-ray astronomy which consists of a cluster of 109 close-packed photomultiplier tubes at the focus of a 10 meter optical reflector. The images of the Cherenkov flashes generated both by gamma-ray and charged cosmic-ray events are digitized and recorded. Subsequent off-line analysis of the images improves the significance of the signal to noise ratio by a factor of 10 compared with non-imaging techniques.     

Statistical data analysis for gamma-ray astronomy

Significance testing, parameter estimation and sensitivity calculations for -ray telescopes are discussed for single on-off astronomical observations. Four widely used significance test methods are examined by Monte-Carlo simulations. The Maximum Likelihood Ratio Method is found to consistently over-estimate the significance of an observation by a few percents whereas the Fisher's Exact Test is shown to be slightly conservative and always under-estimates the significance by about the same amount when the reported significance is about 3 and therefore it is preferred for -ray astronomy applications. Two methods for constructing a confidence interval and an upper limit for -ray source counts are discussed. It is found that the method based on the Smooth Transformation provides slightly better estimations. A new formula for the calculation of the sensitivity of a -ray telescope is presented, in contrast to the widely accepted one, and their statistical meanings are explained in detail.     

Infrared detector for mid-infrared astronomy

Recent developments of infrared detectors and arrays for mid-infrared astronomical observations are discussed with an emphasis on technical issues in designing and fabricating photometers and cameras. The discussion includes a small-scale silicon bolometer array being tested at the Steward Observatory.Paper presented at the Symposium on the JNLT and Related Engineering Developments, Tokyo, November 29–December 2, 1988.     

Instrumentation for very high energy gamma-ray astronomy

Considerable progress has been made in the last half-decade in the field of very high energy (VHE) gamma-ray astronomy (photons with energies between 10¹¹ and 10¹³ eV). The high background level due to the isotropic cosmic ray flux which has bedevilled the field since its inception in the early 1960's can now be reduced to such a degree that significant gamma-ray signals from several sources become visible within a few hours of observation. The instrumentation and methodologies which have made this possible are reviewed. A brief historical introduction is followed by a summary of the salient properties of the atmospheric Cherenkov flash associated with VHE gamma-ray events. The major components of a VHE gamma-ray astronomy telescope are then reviewed. This is followed by a discussion of the different methodologies currently being used to discriminate against the cosmic ray background. Properties of several specific installations are then summarized, and possible future developments in VHE instrumentation are briefly discussed.     

History of gamma-ray telescopes and astronomy

Gamma-ray astronomy is devoted to study nuclear and elementary particle astrophysics and astronomical objects under extreme conditions of gravitational and electromagnetic forces, and temperature. Because signals from gamma rays below 1 TeV cannot be recorded on ground, observations from space are required. The photoelectric effect is dominant <100 keV, Compton scattering between 100 keV and 10 MeV, and electron–positron pair production at energies above 10 MeV. The sun and some gamma ray burst sources are the strongest gamma ray sources in the sky. For other sources, directionality is obtained by shielding / masks at low energies, by using the directional properties of the Compton effect, or of pair production at high energies. The power of angular resolution is low (fractions of a degree, depending on energy), but the gamma sky is not crowded and sometimes identification of sources is possible by time variation. The gamma ray astronomy time line lists Explorer XI in 1961, and the first discovery of gamma rays from the galactic plane with its successor OSO-3 in 1968. The first solar flare gamma ray lines were seen with OSO-7 in 1972. In the 1980’s, the Solar Maximum Mission observed a multitude of solar gamma ray phenomena for 9 years. Quite unexpectedly, gamma ray bursts were detected by the Vela-satellites in 1967. It was 30 years later, that the extragalactic nature of the gamma ray burst phenomenon was finally established by the Beppo–Sax satellite. Better telescopes were becoming available, by using spark chambers to record pair production at photon energies >30 MeV, and later by Compton telescopes for the 1–10 MeV range. In 1972, SAS-2 began to observe the Milky Way in high energy gamma rays, but, unfortunately, for a very brief observation time only due to a failure of tape recorders. COS-B from 1975 until 1982 with its wire spark chamber, and energy measurement by a total absorption counter, produced the first sky map, recording galactic continuum emission, mainly from interactions of cosmic rays with interstellar matter, and point sources (pulsars and unidentified objects). An integrated attempt at observing the gamma ray sky was launched with the Compton Observatory in 1991 which stayed in orbit for 9 years. This large shuttle-launched satellite carried a wire spark chamber “Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope” EGRET for energies >30 MeV which included a large Cesium Iodide crystal spectrometer, a “Compton Telescope” COMPTEL for the energy range 1–30 MeV, the gamma ray “Burst and Transient Source Experiment” BATSE, and the “Oriented Scintillation-Spectrometer Experiment” OSSE. The results from the “Compton Observatory” were further enlarged by the SIGMA mission, launched in 1989 with the aim to closely observe the galactic center in gamma rays, and INTEGRAL, launched in 2002. From these missions and their results, the major features of gamma ray astronomy are:

Diffuse emission, i.e. interactions of cosmic rays with matter, and matter–antimatter annihilation; it is found, “...that a matter–antimatter symmetric universe is empirically excluded....”

Nuclear lines, i.e. solar gamma rays, or lines from radioactive decay (nucleosynthesis), like the 1.809 MeV line of radioactive ²⁶Al;

Localized sources, i.e. pulsars, active galactic nuclei, gamma ray burst sources (compact relativistic sources), and unidentified sources.

     

Underground water Cherenkov muon detector array with the Tibet air shower array for gamma-ray astronomy in the 100 TeV region

We propose to build a large water-Cherenkov-type muon-detector array (Tibet MD array) around the 37 000 m² Tibet air shower array (Tibet AS array) already constructed at 4300 m above sea level in Tibet, China. Each muon detector is a waterproof concrete pool, 6 m wide × 6 m long × 1.5 m deep in size, equipped with a 20 inch-in-diameter PMT. The Tibet MD array consists of 240 muon detectors set up 2.5 m underground. Its total effective area will be 8640 m² for muon detection. The Tibet MD array will significantly improve gamma-ray sensitivity of the Tibet AS array in the 100 TeV region (10–1000 TeV) by means of gamma/hadron separation based on counting the number of muons accompanying an air shower. The Tibet AS+MD array will have the sensitivity to gamma rays in the 100 TeV region by an order of magnitude better than any other previous existing detectors in the world. The Tibet ASγ Collaboration.     

The goddard program of gamma-ray transient astronomy

The Goddard program of gamma-ray burst studies is briefly reviewed. The past results, present status and future expectations are outlined regarding our endeavors using experiments on balloons, IMP-6 and IMP-7, OGO-3, ISEE-1 and ISEE-3, Helios-2, Solar Maximum Mission, the Einstein Observatory, Solar Polar and the Gamma Ray Observatory, and with the interplanetary gamma-ray burst networks, to which some of these spacecraft sensors contribute. Additional emphasis is given to the recent discovery of a new type of gamma-ray transient, detected on 5 March, 1979.Paper presented at the Symposium on Cosmic Gamma-Ray Bursts held at Toulouse, France, 26–29 November, 1979.     

Neutron and proton interaction backgrounds in compton-telescopes used for gamma-ray astronomy

Gamma-ray background counting rates encountered in astronomy observations are calculated for a double Compton scatter telescope. Backgrounds not eliminated by the usual growth curve could be produced by albedo neutrons and/or cosmic ray protons interacting with the carbon and/or hydrogen of the detector. They are the albedo neutron-carbon interaction gamma-rays, cosmic ray proton interaction delayed gamma rays and the moderated albedo neutron-proton photocapture gamma rays. It is decisive to know the contribution of these backgrounds, because they must be subtracted before the cosmic diffuse flux can be determined. Estimates of the neutron induced background events in a Compton telescope show that they might contribute a considerable fraction of the counting rate. In the near future the calculations will be checked with a calibrated neutron beam.     

Feasibility and design of a solid state gamma-ray detector

For conventional radiation detectors fabricated from compound semi-conductors, the wide disparity between the transport properties of the electron and holes, means that detector performances are limited by the carrier with the poorest mobility-lifetime product (μτ). Finite drift lengths introduce an energy dependent depth term into the charge collection process, which effectively limit maximum detection volume to tens of mm³ – entirely unsuitable for the detection of gamma-rays. The recent introduction of the coplanar-grid charge-sensing techniques has overcome this problem by essentially discarding the carrier with the poorest transport properties, thus permitting high spectral resolution and high detection efficiency. For example, energy resolutions of 2% full-width half-maximum at 662 keV have been demonstrated with coplanar-grid CdZnTe detectors of volumes up to 2 cm³. Further improvements in detector performance and yield are being pursued through refinements in electrode design and material quality. Because coplanar-grid CdZnTe detectors can operate at room temperature, they are ideally suited for applications requiring portability, small size, or low power consumption such as planetary space missions. Other potential applications include well logging, medical diagnostics, and gamma-ray astronomy. We discuss the feasibility and design of a solid state gamma-ray detector based on CdZnTe and compare its performance to a large volume Ge detector. As will be shown, a significant improvement can be made if T1Br is used as the detection medium.     

The characterisation of a cerenkov imaging telescope for ground-based gamma-ray astronomy through correlation of coincident images

The Cerenkov installation of the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, consisting of two identical detectors, separated by 20m, are mounted in parallel for comparing the parameters of images. The average counting rate at one section is 35% higher than at the other. The number of coincident flashes make up 55% for one section and 76% for the second section. The comparison of parameters of coincident events shows high correlation of centroid positions (correlation coefficient r=0.98), of length (r=0.70), orientational angle (r=0.64). The correlation of width parameters is considerably lower (r=0.44).Since the coincident flashes at the two sections correspond to the same EAS their image parameters must be the same or very close. Hence the correlation coefficient between identical parameters of coincident flashes will characterize the quality of equipment and the method of observational data processing.     

A new silicon avalanche photodiode photon counting detector module for astronomy

A new Silicon avalanche photodiode photon counting detector module with a peak detection efficiency of 45% and a maximum counting rate of more than 3,000,000cts/sec is described and its performance assessed over a range of operating conditions. The module should prove ideal for a wide variety of astronomical instrumentation as it covers the spectral range 350–1050nm and is compact, rugged and relatively cheap.     

A design study of atmospheric Cerenkov radiation telescope for very high energy gamma-ray astronomy

Detection of cosmic sources of very high energy gamma rays based on the atmospheric Cerenkov technique is discussed. Very high energy gamma-rays initiate, on entering the terrestrial atmosphere, electron-photon cascade showers with in turn produce Cerenkov photons in the air. Parabolic reflectors are used to focus these photons onto fast photomultipliers. Two methods of deployment of parabolic reflectors are in vogue: one in which all the reflectors are located close to each other in a compact array and the other in which the reflectors are spread out farther apart forming a distributed array. In the latter mode, the arrival direction of individual showers can be determined accurately by using the measured relative arrival times between different detectors. Detailed studies with the distributed array helped us to understand the various parameters in the two designs and evaluate their relative merits in reaching the ultimate goals of lowering the energy threshold and improving the signal to background ratio for the detection of gamma-ray sources. It is found that the relative superiority among the two types of arrays is a function of the exponent assumed for the differential power law energy spectrum for the gamma ray source. It is also seen that with the type of reflectors commonly used in atmospheric Cerenkov work, lower energy thresholds can be achieved with use of larger aperture.     

Evolution of ground-based gamma-ray astronomy from the early days to the Cherenkov Telescope Arrays

Most of what we know of cosmic gamma rays has come from spacecraft, but at energies above tens of GeV it has become possible to make observations with ground-based detectors of enormously greater collecting area. In recent years one such detector type, the cluster of imaging air Cherenkov telescopes, has reached a very productive state, whilst several alternative approaches have been explored, including converted solar power collectors and novel high-altitude particle shower detectors which promised to extend the energy range covered. Key examples of development from 1952 to 2011 are followed, noting the problems and discoveries that stimulated the current work, explaining the logic of the alternative approaches that were taken. The merits of the current major Cherenkov observatories and of other viable detectors are examined and compared, with examples of the astrophysical information they are beginning to provide. The detectors are still evolving, as we still do not understand the processes onto which the gamma rays provide a window. These include the acceleration of Galactic cosmic rays (in particular, the wide-band spectra of radiation from some individual supernova remnants are still hard to interpret), the highly relativistic and variable jets from active galactic nuclei, and aspects of the electrodynamics of pulsars. Larger groups of Cherenkov telescopes still offer the possibility of an increase in power of the technique for resolvable Galactic sources especially.     

Monte Carlo study of detector concepts for the MAX Laue lens gamma-ray telescope

MAX is a proposed Laue lens gamma-ray telescope taking advantage of Bragg diffraction in crystals to concentrate incident photons onto a distant detector. The Laue lens and the detector are carried by two separate satellites flying in formation. Significant effort is being devoted to studying different types of crystals that may be suitable for focusing gamma rays in two 100 keV wide energy bands centered on two lines which constitute the prime astrophysical interest of the MAX mission: the 511 keV positron annihilation line, and the broadened 847 keV line from the decay of ⁵⁶Co copiously produced in Type Ia supernovae. However, to optimize the performance of MAX, it is also necessary to optimize the detector used to collect the source photons concentrated by the lens. We address this need by applying proven Monte Carlo and event reconstruction packages to predict the performance of MAX for three different Ge detector concepts: a standard coaxial detector, a stack of segmented detectors, and a Compton camera consisting of a stack of strip detectors. Each of these exhibits distinct advantages and disadvantages regarding fundamental instrumental characteristics such as detection efficiency or background rejection, which ultimately determine achievable sensitivities. We conclude that the Compton camera is the most promising detector for MAX in particular, and for Laue lens gamma-ray telecopes in general.     

The melting of neutron stars' crystalline cores and gamma-ray bursts

Possible phase transitions in neutron star matter, particularly the melting of neutron stars' crystalline cores, are discussed. Such processes may explain the observed luminosity of pulsars. They are used also as a basis for an explanation of the origin of low energy gamma-ray bursts which have been intensively studied for the last few years. The authors discuss the structure of gamma-ray bursts and the possibility of obtaining from observational data some information on thermal evolution of neutron stars and dynamic processes in the pulsar crust.     

The HUS solar flare and cosmic gamma-ray burst detector aboard the ULYSSES spacecraft

The HUS-Ulysses team has prepared an instrument aboard the ULYSSES spacecraft consisting of 2 CsI detectors and 2 Si surface barrier detectors for measuring X-rays in the range 5–200 keV up to 8 ms resolution. The prime objectives are the study of solar flares and of cosmic gamma-ray bursts. The ULYSSES mission will leave the ecliptic during the next solar cycle. The solar data can be used in conjunction with other experiments to measure the directivity of the emission and for correlative studies. The cosmic gamma-ray burst data will improve source localizations, allowing sensitive searches for counterparts. The energy range and the 4 field of view is well suited to the detection of the soft gamma-ray repeaters.Paper presented at the 11th European Regional Astronomical Meetings of the IAU on New Windows to the Universe, held 3–8 July, 1989, Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain     

Evaluation of Compton contamination events in an actively shielded Ge gamma-ray detector

An expression has been developed which gives the flux of unvetoed Compton-contamination events for a particular source measurement using an actively shielded gamma-ray telescope. By use of suitable approximations, this expression reduces to simpler functions which have been evaluated for some recent measurements of the Crab nebula. It has been shown that for the exposures typical of balloon-borne observations, and a reasonably efficient anti-coincidence system (>50%), the non-photopeak component of the detected source energy-loss spectrum can be neglected.     

Observations of cosmic gamma-ray bursts with the main detector of the SIGMA telescope onboard the Granat Observatory

We present the observations of cosmic gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) with the main detector of the SIGMA telescope onboard the Granat Observatory from January 1990 through September 1994. The observations were carried out in the energy range 35–1300 keV. We detected 36 GRBs and 31 high-energy solar flares during this period. No GRB fell within the main field of view; they were all recorded by the “secondary optics” of the telescope. The SIGMA telescope recorded relatively bright bursts with peak fluxes of 10^?6–10^?4 erg s^?1 cm^?2 in the 100–500-keV energy band. Stable detector background allows the long-term variability of GRB sources on a time scale of ～1000 s to be studied. The results of our search for early afterglows of GRBs are presented. The flux averaged over all bursts in the interval 100–800 s after the main event is 0.36±0.14 counts s^?(35–300 keV), suggesting that there is soft gamma-ray emission on this time scale after a considerable number of GRBs.