The etiquette of state-building and modernisation in dependent states: performing stateness and the normalisation of separate development in South Africa

The paper reflects upon the continuing allure of state-building and modernisation in peripheral, `new' states and regions. The central argument is to suggest that our understanding of the conflicts surrounding `nation-building' can be improved upon by looking at one of the most powerful symbols of the neo-colonial, economic and institutional dependency and territorial artificiality of the `nation-state'- the South African Bantustan. As enforced state-hood projects, their `newness' and illegality in the eyes of the international community suggest that the Bantustans provide a particularly striking evocation of both the limits of state-building and, above all, the significance of recognition for `newer' states. Efforts to overturn the illegal status and non-recognition of one `independent' Bantustan, namely Bophuthatswana, therefore, illustrate what are widely held to be the modern attributes and evolutionary etiquette (`growth', `building', `development') that need to be `performed' in order to legitimise or normalise a state internationally. To be given a `voice' internationally, states are seemingly required to enact state-hood and sovereignty through a range of normalising rituals associated with state-building. In this case- study, strategies promoting neo-liberal development policies and also clandestine diplomatic and economic manoeuvres were believed by the regime to deliver international recognition. Directed at locating Bophuthatswana within its place in the world, these strenuous efforts also show how crude territorial `divide and rule' tactics alone were not responsible for underpinning the apartheid project. Rather, spaces were provided for discourses and practices of state-led `national' development in the Bantustan periphery. Thought to deliver normality for the renegade Bophuthatswana state, these international and local policies exacerbated and induced further a range of crises at the heart of the Bantustan strategy and apartheid modernisation more generally. These debilitating, and in Bophuthatswana's case, disastrous, tensions between the internal and external realms of state-building point to a more general need to rethink alternatives both to neo-liberalism as well as the rituals associated with state- building.     

非洲磷矿资源格局与开发现状

磷是生物体所必需的营养元素,因其不可替代性及未来迅速枯竭性,被中、德、日、英、美等国相继列入战略性矿产资源清单。全球磷矿石资源丰富,但是分布极不均衡,70%以上集中在非洲,著名的磷矿资源国有摩洛哥及西撒哈拉地区,阿尔及利亚、南非、埃及、突尼斯、塞内加尔、多哥等国磷矿储量也较为丰富,非洲可谓是全球磷矿储量的绝对担当。矿床类型主要有沉积型、岩浆型和鸟粪型,以沉积型为主,同时具有储量大、品位高、伴生有其他具有经济价值元素等特点。近年来,非洲已成为全球重要磷矿产地与供应地,目前,在非洲从事磷矿勘查开发的矿业公司以本土矿业公司为主,摩洛哥磷酸盐集团是全球上最大的磷酸盐生产和出口商。非洲磷矿石主要出口大国为摩洛哥、埃及、多哥、阿尔及利亚等;出口至印度、印度尼西、墨西哥、巴西等国家。未来,非洲仍将为全球主要磷矿供应地之一,并将扮演更加重要的角色。     

Conservation and community in the new South Africa: A case study of the Mahushe Shongwe Game Reserve

The idealization of natural landscapes and peoples during colonialism, coupled with the popularity of sustainable development in the postcolonial era, has contributed to the expansion of conservation planning throughout the African continent. Concerns surrounding the promotion of national and international conservation agendas at the expense of local livelihood needs have generated interest in community conservation projects that attempt to include local participation and knowledge in natural resource management. The early excitement associated with community conservation has waned in light of recent assessments that it has been unsuccessful in meeting its ecological and social goals. This parallels other research that suggests communities are understood in generic or homogenous ways that influence how these initiatives are understood. Using a case study of the Mahushe Shongwe Game Reserve, this paper evaluates how rural households access environmental and economic resources to produce livelihoods, and how these access patterns impact their views of the project. It is argued that there are significant livelihood variations within the community that shape the ways households engage with, and benefit from, conservation planning. Rather than strictly viewing Mahushe Shongwe as a constraint to environmental resource access or site for limited employment, community members identify a number of benefits from its existence including education and development opportunities. Additionally, transformations in governance systems in the region impact community views of the project since younger residents are less likely to engage with the Matsamo Tribal Authority, which participates in managing the reserve. The consequence is that conservation has various impacts and meanings within a specific community that remain tied to the livelihood and governance systems being renegotiated in the post-apartheid era.     

非洲锆矿资源地质特征及勘查开发

非洲的锆资源丰富,沿海岸带成群连片分布。通过对非洲51个锆矿床（点）的地质特征、时空分布及勘查开发历史和现状等进行分析研究,查明非洲的锆资源具有分布集中、规模大、易采易选,伴生矿物种类多,综合利用价值高等特点。非洲已查明锆储量占全球52%,其中莫桑比克、南非、马达加斯加、塞内加尔和肯尼亚集中了非洲99%的锆矿资源。矿床类型以滨海锆砂矿为主,矿体多为平行海岸线的沙丘群,通常为上新世-全新世未固结的薄而平坦的砂层,走向延伸10~100km,重矿物以锆石、金红石和钛铁矿为主,含量2%~12%。非洲锆矿的勘查始于20世纪20年代的尼罗河三角洲,开发始于20世纪50年代的南非,特诺、力拓等大型矿业公司是非洲锆矿开发的主力,济南域潇集团等中资企业近年来积极参与。非洲的锆矿开发主要集中在南非和莫桑比克,近10年来的产量约占全球锆产量的40%,成为全球主要锆资源供应地。马达加斯加和肯尼亚的锆矿资源丰富,是与中国签署共建“一带一路”谅解备忘录的国家,与中国在锆矿资源领域的合作潜力巨大。     

Power and the hierarchy of knowledge: A review of a decade of the World Bank’s relationship with South Africa

This article presents a case study of the World Bank’s relationship with South Africa to argue that the Bank uses its knowledge brokering role as a device to facilitate the development of a lending relationship with countries that may initially be reluctant to enter into this kind of engagement. This article reviews the World Bank’s 10-year effort to develop a lending relationship with South Africa. The Bank inserted itself into the country in the early 1990s at the outset of its democratic transformation. Throughout the decade, South Africa acceded to the Bank’s policy interventions through technical assistance rather than through a concerted lending programme. In doing so, South Africa internalized the Bank’s market-driven political economy framework underlying its technical assistance programme. The country’s application of the Bank’s knowledge has had questionable outcomes for its development agenda. While the Bank’s ‘expert’ interventions may have offered valuable technical insights, it neglected the politics of distribution that are embedded in a more localized knowledge formation process. The result has led to the instrumentalization of local governance and undermined the engagement of civil society actors in the construction of a democratic state at the local level.     

(Re)politicizing empowerment: Lessons from the South African wine industry

Despite being a poorly defined and vague concept, empowerment is currently of political and theoretical significance and nowhere more so than in South Africa, where it seen as central to post-apartheid transformation. This paper explores the ways in which empowerment has been understood, defined and deployed by post-apartheid governments in the context of a gradual shift from nation-building to neo-liberal governance. It examines the impact of legislation and government policy through a critical examination of empowerment initiatives in the wine industry. Drawing on research conducted in the Western Cape in 2004, the paper analyses how empowerment is interpreted and appropriated both within legislation and specifically within the wine industry. It explores what the wine industry reveals about the disempowering work of neo-liberalism, even as it is couched in the discourses of empowerment. Findings suggest that equating empowerment with economic empowerment threatens to reinforce structures of domination, rather than transforming them, while leaving power relations largely untouched. The case study reveals that until more radical understandings of power and empowerment are acknowledged and incorporated into government policies the failure to address broader issues of social and economic transformation will persist and policies aimed at the empowerment of marginalised individuals and communities will continue to have apparently pre-determined and depoliticised outcomes.     

Mahsuri’s curse—globalisation and tourist development in Pulau Langkawi

The legend of Mahsuri abounds in Malaysian school textbooks. Mahsuri was a beautiful and very charming village maiden who lived in Pulau Langkawi and was wrongfully put to death in 1819 or the year 1235 hijrab. Accused of adultery by a jealous member of the royal house, Mahsuri, who was married to the Chief Minister, was sentenced to death together with her alleged lover, a trader from a place which is now part of Thailand in Phuket. Killed with her own family’s keris (a traditional Malay sword), Mahsuri put a curse on Pulau Langkawi for seven generations. She swore before her death that there would be no peace or prosperity on the island for the duration of these seven generations. Mahsuri’s family moved to another village in what was then the territory of Thailand and finally settled in Phuket, illustrating the cultural and trading links that have existed in this northern part of Malaysia between the southern parts of Thailand and the states of Perlis and Kedah. Mahsuri’s family and she appear to have not been allowed to rest in peace since her premature death. Her tomb, which was enshrined by the villagers, has been relocated several times and the exact location of its whereabouts may not be known. The tombstone itself is now housed in a museum that has been constructed near to the site where the tomb is believed to be. A huge tourist complex called Kota Mahsuri is being developed around the site of Mahsuri’s tomb. Pulau Langkawi may be the island paradise lost. Perhaps Mahsuri’s curse lingers, no matter that seven generations have passed and with them the industries that integration with the global economy has seen developed, declined and disappeared. Then again, perhaps this is indeed the curse—the quest for prosperity in a globalizing world and its relentless exploitation of the heritage in strategic parts of Malaysia—both natural and cultural—for the gains of a few and questionable benefits to the rest.     

Mobilizing the ethical consumer in South Africa

This paper presents a critical engagement with current initiatives for ethically-labeled goods in South Africa, thus offering an intervention in a literature on ethical consumption that has previously prioritized the global North. Through an interview-based methodology supported by focus groups in the Western Cape, the paper attends specifically to the strategies shaping recent forms of ethical consumption in South Africa on the part of business and civil society. Campaigns and strategies associated with three of the most prominent ethical labeling initiatives in South Africa—Proudly South African, Fairtrade Label South Africa and the Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI)—are evaluated. Barnett et al.’s (2011: 90) notion of “mobilizing the ethical consumer” is brought into conversation with ethical consumption literature on local embeddedness in order to assess the ways in which the organizations responsible for these initiatives combine globalizing business and political networks of responsibility with local institutions and values in South Africa. The role played by the discursive construction of a growing South African ‘middle class’ is also acknowledged as part of the process of encouraging ethical consumption on the part of these actors. In conclusion, it is suggested that understanding ethical consumption in South Africa, as elsewhere, requires sensitivity to both transnational networks of globalizing responsibility and localized expressions of ethical consumption.     

非洲铀矿资源分布、地质特征与勘查开发

非洲铀矿资源丰富,在全球占有重要地位,是我国利用铀矿资源的重要来源地。通过分析非洲259处已知铀矿床（点）的地质特征与勘查开发现状,揭示非洲铀矿资源具有分布集中、规模巨大、矿床类型多样等特点,砂岩型、古石英-卵石砾岩型、侵入岩型是最重要的铀矿类型,非洲铀矿主要分布于卡普瓦尔克拉通、新元古代褶皱带的达马拉褶皱带和西非活动带伊勒姆登大型盆地,成矿作用明显受地层、构造、岩浆岩等控制。不同类型矿床成矿时代具有各自特征,古石英-卵石砾岩型铀矿床全部形成于太古宙,侵入岩型铀矿床大多形成于元古宙,砂岩型铀矿床形成时代跨度大,从元古宙到新生代均有产出。近十年来非洲新增铀储量27万吨。建议国内企业抓住机遇,以侵入岩型和砂岩型铀矿为投资重点,加强在纳米比亚和尼日尔等铀矿资源国的勘查开发合作。     

Towards a critical political geography of African development

In this paper we aim to rethink the political geography of African development at the beginning of the 21st century. Central to our thesis are two intertwining legacies, paralleling Edward Said’s Orientalism. The first is the construction of Africa in the western imagination and the second is an enduring trusteeship towards the continent. The core movement we seek to critique and move beyond is the complicity between racialised knowledges about Africa and a series of political interventions that seek to ‘help’ Africans to develop. The paper begins by examining the legacy of colonialism in the policies towards and representations of Africa. Although selective and schematic we argue that what unites these power–knowledge constructions is a sense of trusteeship towards the continent. The next step is to look at ways of decolonising our knowledges as a means to effect more appropriate political engagement with Africa. For this we touch on a range of theoretical positions, but look most closely at the corpus of post-colonial theory for ways of doing this. While not uncritical of post-colonialism we find it potentially useful for destabilising western authority and in addressing questions of popular agency and cultural constructions of exclusion. From here we attempt a reformulation which addresses the role of the state, the politics of place and space, and the ways in which ‘we’––professional geographers––might go about our work.     

Deservedness, development, and the state: Geographic categorization in the US Agency for International Development’s Foreign Assistance Framework

The institutions, practices, and discourses of US development policy and foreign assistance are undergoing profound changes. Central to these has been the creation of a new framework for foreign aid, built around a complex taxonomy of developing states and governance issue areas, with geographic and governance categories predicated on notions of state stability and fragility, strategic geopolitical position, and development progress. Given its long-standing position as the primary federal agency responsible for development and foreign aid, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) has played an important role in these policy changes, even as its political status and standing have suffered in recent years. The new framework is beset by contradictions, stemming both from the problematic relationship between development, security, and liberalization in agency rhetoric and strategies, and from intensive restructuring processes affecting USAID’s internal character and external relations. This paper investigates the new framework for foreign aid, linking internal restructuring at USAID to broader trends in state development strategies. I argue that shifts in US development and aid policy - toward emphases on “transformational development” abroad and centralization over strategic decision making domestically, crystallized in the new framework - are based in contradictory understandings of aid deservedness that stem from the tensions between economic and geopolitical aims within the current security-focused US state project of neoliberalization. These contradictions and tensions are displaced onto USAID via the Foreign Assistance Framework.     

非洲锰矿床成矿规律、开发利用与勘查建议

锰矿是我国重要的战略矿产资源,需求量不断增长,长期依赖国外资源保障供需关系。本文总结分析了非洲锰矿资源的特点、矿床类型与成矿规律等地质特征与勘查开发利用及贸易现状。分析表明：非洲是全球探明锰矿储量和资源量最多的地区,具有分布集中,规模大、品位高、杂质少的特点;锰矿床类型主要有条带状含铁建造（BIF）型、海相沉积型、海相火山-沉积型、陆相（湖相三角洲）沉积型、岩浆热液型等五大类,普遍遭受表生风化淋滤（溶蚀）作用改造;主要分布在卡普瓦尔克拉通、刚果克拉通西北部的加蓬地块和西非克拉通南缘的马恩-莱奥地盾中;成矿时代主要集中于前寒武纪,尤其是2.2~2.0Ga;非洲锰矿资源的勘查开发程度较高,其中南非是非洲锰矿勘查程度最高的国家,中非、北非国家的勘查开发程度较低;南非是全球最大的锰矿石生产国和锰矿产品出口国,目前占全球出口量的68.19%以上,我国是非洲锰矿产的最大出口地,占其出口总量的70.19%。建议：我国在非洲的勘查应重点关注非洲中部的条带状含铁建造（BIF）型锰矿和海相火山-沉积型锰矿;在非洲已有的中企基础上,组建大型的集团公司,建立多元的锰矿资源供应体系。     

The transfer of agricultural technology and the development of small-scale farming in rural Africa: Case studies from Ghana, Sudan, Uganda, Zambia and South Africa

In many developing countries, research institutions or centres have been established to develop and/or adapt technologies that would help agricultural development. This is particularly true in Africa where national efforts have been supplemented with international research institutes. Although some modest progress has been achieved in improving agricultural technology, on the whole, the improvement record is not quite encouraging among the small-scale farmers. In many areas, either there are no improved technologies, or where they exist, are unacceptable by farmers. However, where useful technologies exist, their spread has been very limited and where they have been adapted, the benefits only accrue to a small segment of the community. The logical question posed is: why and how do we find ourselves in the current situation? This paper considers the view that to understand fully why the available technologies have remained largely at the research centres, there is need to examine the whole process of research, development, dissemination and utilization of agricultural technology. It is significant to investigate the structural constraints and prospects under which those involved in the process work, their motivations and the interactions between different groups. The traditional ‘top-down’ of development strategy should be supplemented with farmers' indigenous knowledge, and programmes encouraging transfer of agricultural technology should include institutional support. Only by the identification of farmers' environmental and resource utilisation, preferences, socio-economic circumstances and constraints can a development programme of optimum meaning to farmers be devised and implemented with success.     

南非重要金属矿产开发现状及投资前景分析

南非矿产资源非常丰富,储量巨大,是全球不包括能源在内的矿产资源范围价值最富有的国家。经研究,世界上最大的锰矿区、铬矿区,最大的黄金矿脉均位于南非,与我国形成了很强的经济互补性,因此对南非重要金属矿产进行开发投资具有重要的意义。结合本文整理的南非重要金属矿产锰、铂族、铬、金四大矿种资源禀赋、分布、产量、矿业公司及投资环境等,对南非进一步的投资方向和投资目标提出建议：对重点研究的锰、铂族、铬、金四大矿种提出了相关开发投资区域建议,而对于南非社会目前的不稳定性,建议中资企业可以参股形式参与当地的矿业投资,避免投资风险。     

Planning and development regulation amid rapid urban growth: Explaining divergent trajectories in Africa

Why are urban plans, land use regulations and construction codes implemented effectively in some African states but not others? This constitutes an increasingly urgent development concern with major implications for the environment and the urban poor. Rather than being explained by economic factors, bureaucratic capacity or the nature of the urban policies and regulations in place, this paper argues that divergent outcomes are largely rooted in differing political bargaining environments. Comparing Uganda and Rwanda, it presents an empirical study that analyses contrasting planning and regulation trajectories in contexts of similarly low levels of socioeconomic development and soaring rates of urban growth. It argues that the divergent outcomes can be explained in relation to the political resources and incentives confronted by governing elites, which in Rwanda impel state actors to implement plans and regulations while in Uganda incentivize overriding them in the interests of political or economic gain. In highlighting political bargaining contexts and how these change over time, the paper illustrates the critical importance of historically informed city-level political economy analysis for understanding divergent urban development outcomes.     

东北非矿业投资环境分析

东北非地区成矿地质条件优越,矿产资源丰富,主要优势金属矿产为金、铜金矿、稀土及铂族元素矿产.本文对东北非主要矿产类型、开发现状进行了介绍,并详细阐述了埃塞俄比亚、厄立特里亚、苏丹三国的矿业法律法规、矿业权管理制度等内容,在此基础上对三国的矿业投资优势及风险进行了分析,并对投资者提出了相应的建议,认为东北非具有较好的矿产资源开发潜力和投资环境,中方企业应依据各国国情,把握机会,适时介入.     

非洲铌钽矿地质特征、矿床类型及勘查开发现状分析

铌和钽作为重要的稀有金属矿产,被广泛应用于各种“高精尖”领域。非洲铌钽资源丰富,是全球最大的钽矿生产地。本文基于非洲铌钽矿资源状况、矿床类型、典型矿床及其勘查开发现状最新数据,得出以下认识：铌钽矿主要集中于非洲中南部地区,多数以伴生矿的形式产出,矿床类型主要包括碳酸岩型、风化壳型、碱性岩型、花岗岩型、伟晶岩型和砂矿型六种,其中花岗岩型和伟晶岩型主要富钽,而碳酸岩型和碱性岩型则主要富铌;铌钽矿床主要分布于卡普瓦尔克拉通、刚果克拉通、津巴布韦克拉通以及基巴拉、达马拉、泛非等碰撞造山带内,形成时代主要集中于太古宙、古元古代、新元古代、泛非活动期和中生代五个成矿期;非洲大部分铌钽矿山都还处于勘探开发初级阶段,受困于经济技术的落后,手工和小规模采矿仍然是铌钽矿生产开发的主要手段,未来资源潜力较大。     

The co-production of land use and livelihoods change: Implications for development interventions

In a previous paper [McCusker, B., Carr, E.R., 2006. The co-production of livelihoods and land use change: Case studies from South Africa and Ghana. Geoforum 37 (5), 790–804], we argued that land use and livelihoods could best be understood as co-produced, where land use and livelihoods are not separate objects of knowledge related to one another through abstract processes, but different manifestations of social processes through which individuals and groups come to understand the challenges facing their everyday lives, the various resources available to them to negotiate these challenges, and the strategies by which they can conduct that negotiation. In this paper, we examine the theoretical basis for “co-production” with the goal of using this approach to inform development interventions.     

A critical overview of transboundary aquifers shared by South Africa

Transboundary groundwater commonly implies a body of groundwater intersected by a political border with the attendant potential threat of dispute over a shared resource. This definition is inadequate in many parts of southern Africa. Approximately 96% of South Africa’s borders are underlain by low-yielding aquifers and, coupled with a low demand for water attendant on low population density, the risk of over-pumping or pollution leading to dispute is low, and a modified understanding is required. Examples of transboundary aquifers are used to illustrate implications for policy and management of southern African transboundary groundwater resources, where transmissivities are low and, less commonly, where over-pumping may indeed be a problem. The general lack of technical cooperation, data sharing, training and research between the riparian states on hydrogeology hampers a mutual understanding of the resources. The concept of transboundary groundwater must necessarily include aquifers where little cross-border flow occurs, but where cross-border cooperation will help to ensure sustainable cooperative utilisation of shared aquifer resources. This is imperative if future disputes are to be averted. Agreement between scientists is a necessary precursor to broader transnational governance agreements in regard to shared water resources, and recent initiatives by the Orange-Senqu River Commission promise closer integration.     

‘Bringing government to the people’: women, local governance and community participation in South Africa

This paper considers the ongoing political transformations in South Africa in the context of debates about good governance and participatory democracy. It first appraises the current transformations of local government in South Africa, focusing specifically on relationships between gender equality and citizenship on the one hand, and local government policy, legislation, and community participation on the other, and then explores meanings of participation and how they inform approaches towards local socio-economic development. The findings of primary research conducted with civil society organisations and black women in communities in the Cape Town metropolitan area are explored through three interrelated themes. First, the model of structured participation that is central to South Africa’s democratic transformation is assessed from the perspective of black women. Second, cultures of alienation, both within local governance structures and amongst black women and the extent to which recent restructuring is combating or contributing to these are explored. Third, how participation policies are dealing with conflict within and between target groups are analysed, whether stakeholder group politics obliterate important differences in interests and whether alternative structures might be more effective in terms of women’s participation and empowerment. Finally, the findings are interpreted in relation to theoretical concepts of good governance and participatory democracy, and the potential and problems of realising South Africa’s transformation process toward developmental local government are assessed.