Formation of ring structures in galactic disks during close passages of galaxies

The formation of ring structures in galactic disks is investigated. It is shown that, in addition to the known mechanism of forming rings in “head-on” collisions between galaxies, ring structures can be formed during close passages of galaxies if the perturbing galaxy moves in a plane close to the equatorial plane of the perturbed disk galaxy, opposite to the direction of rotation of the disk. Numerical simulations of the formation of structures in the disk of a massive galaxy undergoing a passage with another galaxy are considered. The results of these cmputations show the formation of pronounced ring structures in the galactic disk when the initial inclination of the trajectory of the perturbing galaxy to the equatorial plane of the perturbed galaxy is no more than ~25°. However, the probability of close passages of galaxies with these parameters is small, as is the probability of head-on collisions. The characteristic time scale for the existence of pronounced rings is of order the dynamical time scale at the edge of the galaxy, 200–300 million years, close to the corresponding time for head-on collisions. The evolution of the rings has the same character in both cases: they gradually expand and move toward the periphery of the galaxy. The results of these simulations can also be applied to a close passage of one star by another star with a protoplanetary disk. According to the computation results, the characteristic time scale for the existence of pronounced rings in such a protoplanetary disk depends mainly on the size of the disk; this time scale can reach several tens of thousands of years for a disk radius of about 1000 AU. The formation of ring structures in such a disk could influence the formation and evolution of planetesimals, and possibly the character of the formation of planets and the distribution of their orbital semi-major axes.     

Defect structures in naturally deformed clinoamphiboles—a TEM study

Naturally deformed clinoamphiboles from the Selbu-Tydal and Forsbäck-Tärnaby areas of the Scandinavian Caledonides exhibit a well defined subgrain microstructure. From a transmission electron microscopy study (TEM), the subgrain boundaries are shown to consist of arrays of positive and negative screw dislocations with Burgers vector . Locally expanded loops are present having long screw segments. The subgrain boundaries are parallel to rational crystallographic planes of the type (hk0). The density of isolated dislocations within the subgrains is low. In addition planar defect structures parallel to (010) and bounded by screw dislocations with are observed. Based on metamorphic criteria the P−T values at the time of the amphibole growth have been estimated at 450°–600°C and 4–6 kbar, and these represent maximum conditions for the deformation. The present results indicate that slip on (hk0) [001] is an operative deformation mechanism in naturally deformed clinoamphiboles.     

Fluid control of localized mineral domains in limestone pressure solution structures

Grain-to-grain and stylolitic solution structures in two central Appalachian Siluro–Devonian limestone macroscale folds contain one of four distinct mineral assemblages that are characterized by the dominant iron-phase mineral present: (1) chlorite±illite±pyrite±calcite±quartz±TiO₂±goethite, (2) chlorite±illite±pyrite altered to iron oxide/hydroxide±calcite ±quartz±TiO₂, (3) chlorite±illite±magnetite±calcite±quartz, and (4) chlorite±illite±goethite±calcite±quartz±TiO₂. Optical reflectance microscopy and SEM–EDS was used to characterize the mineralogy and mineral morphology of these structures. Geochemical modeling was used to constrain the conditions of formation and preservation.The primary control on solution structure mineral assemblage was the redox conditions present in the solution structures during burial and deformation. The redox conditions on the microscale may have been controlled by the local fluid chemistry and the presence–absence of hydrocarbons and organic acids within the formation fluids, and the influx of externally derived fluids by fracture formation during the folding process. The wide variation in mineralogy of the solution structures shows that they were ‘chemical factories’ where a variety of chemical reactions took place during rock dissolution. In particular, the formation of authigenic magnetite in solution structures has significant implications for paleomagnetic applications, and use of anisotropy of anhysteretic remanent magnetization and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility fabrics.     

Rock structures and mineral assemblage associated with hydroexpansion in mid-oceanic ridge basalts

Summary Detailed micromorphological studies show that zeolites, i.e., mesolite, cowlesite, mordenite and ferrierite, that precipitated exclusively in porous zones, are an important constituent of mid-oceanic ridge basalts (MORB). Such porous zones may result from hydroexpansive fragmentation processes operating during the eruption of the lava under water. Hydroexpansion structures and their secondary mineral assemblages in sea-floor basalts may be significant in the early alteration history of MORB. However, the original volume of these structures is difficult to assess owing to overprinting by subsequent alteration processes. The zeolite assemblage of porous zones is typically K-poor and may therefore be distinguished from the K-rich zeolites of palagonitic origin commonly found in MORB.

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Auf Hydroexpansion zurückzuführende Gesteinsstrukturen und Mineralbildungen in mittelozeanischen Rückenbasalten

Zusammenfassung Detaillierte mikromorphologische Studien haben gezeigt, daß Zeolithe, wie Mesolit, Cowlesit, Mordenit und Ferrierit, die ausschließlich in porösen Zonen gebildet werden, einen wichtigen Bestandteil von mittelozeanischen Rückenbasalten (MORB) darstellen. Derartige poröse Zonen dürften das Resultat hydroexpansiver Fragmentations-Prozesse sein, die während submariner Eruption der Laven stattfinden. Die Strukturen der Hydroexpansion und die sekundären Mineralvergesellschaftungen in den Meerboden-Basalten, scheinen in der frühen Alterationsgeschichte der MORB signifikant zu sein. Das ursprüngliche Volumen dieser Strukturen ist schwer abzuschätzen, da diese von subsequenten Alterationsprozessen überprägt sind. Die Zeolith-Paragenese der porösen Zonen ist typisch K-arm und kann deshalb von den K-reichen Zeolithen palagonitischen Ursprungs, die häufig in MORB vorkommen, unterschieden werden.

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With 6 Figures     

A qualitative molecular orbital study of the stability of polyanions in mineral structures

The existence and structures of various polyanion species, A _k ^n? ,occurring in inorganic compounds and minerals are rationalized using qualitative molecular orbital (MO) theory. Polyanions which may be stabilized by high pressure or lattice defects are discussed and compounds likely to show such species are identified. Previously observed high pressure properties of Fe riebeckite and MgO are interpreted in terms of O - O bond formation at high pressure.     

Pressure dependence of hydroxyl solubility in coesite

 The solubility of hydroxyl in coesite was investigated in multianvil experiments performed at 1200 °C over the nominal pressure range 5–10 GPa, at an f _O2 close to the Ni-NiO buffer. The starting material for each experiment was a cylinder of pure silica glass plus talc, which dehydrates at high P and T to provide a source of water and hydrogen (plus enstatite and excess SiO₂). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra of the recovered coesite crystals show five sharp bands at 3606, 3573, 3523, 3459, and 3299 cm⁻¹, indicative of structurally bonded hydrogen (hydroxyl). The concentration of hydrogen increases with pressure from 285 H/10⁶ Si (at 5 GPa) to 1415 H/10⁶ Si (at 10 GPa). Assuming a model of incorporation by (4H)_Si defects, the data are fit well by the equation C _OH=Af ² _H2<\INF>Oexp(−PΔV/RT), with A=4.38 H/10⁶ Si/GPa, and ΔV=20.6 × 10⁻⁶ m³ mol⁻¹. An alternative model entailing association of hydrogen with cation substitution can also be used to fit the data. These results show that the solubility of hydroxyl in coesite is approximately an order of magnitude lower than in olivines and pyroxenes, but comparable to that in pyropic garnet. However, FTIR investigations on a variety of ultrahigh pressure metamorphic rocks have failed in all cases to detect the presence of water or hydrogen in coesite, indicating either that it grew in dry environments or lost its hydrogen during partial transformation to quartz. On the other hand, micro-FTIR investigations of quartz crystals replacing coesite show that they contain varying amounts of H₂O. These results support the hypothesis that preservation of coesite is not necessarily linked to fast exhumation rates but is crucially dependent on limited fluid infiltration during exhumation. Received: 23 August 1999 / Accepted: 10 April 2000     

矿物晶体的缺陷

晶体具有极其规则的原子结构.然而,大多数晶体物质不是完整的,原子排列的规则图像被晶体缺陷所破坏.本文列举不同类型的缺陷:点缺陷(空位、间隙离子、置换离子、反位缺陷、拓扑缺陷、Schottky缺陷和Frenkel缺陷)、线缺陷(位错)、面缺陷(颗粒边界、小角晶界、反相畴和堆垛层错)和体缺陷(空洞和析出物).     

Till geochemical and indicator mineral methods in mineral exploration

This paper summarizes advances since 1987 in the application of glacial sediment sampling to mineral exploration (drift prospecting) in areas affected by continental or alpine glaciation. In these exploration programs, clastic glacial sediments are tested by geochemical or mineralogical methods to detect dispersal trains of mineral deposit indicators that have been glacially transported from source by mechanical processes. In glaciated terrain the key sampling medium, till, is produced by abrasion, crushing and blending of rock debris and recycled sediment followed by down-ice dispersal ranging from a few metres to many kilometres. As a consequence of the mid-1980s boom in gold exploration, the majority of case studies and regional till geochemical surveys published in the past decade deal with this commodity. Approximately 30% of Canada and virtually all of Fennoscandia have been covered by regional till geochemical surveys that aid mineral exploration and provide baseline data for environmental, agricultural, and landuse planning. The most profound event in drift prospecting in the last decade, however, has been the early-1990s explosion in diamond exploration which has dramatically increased the profile of glacial geology and glacial sediment sampling and stimulated changes in sampling and analytical methods.     

Acceleration of close binaries in supernova explosions

We investigate the orientation of the orbital planes of X-ray binary systems relative to the direction of the additional velocity acquired by the binary in a supernova explosion or as a result of radiative acceleration. In the second case, the acceleration occurs due to X-ray radiation during a stage of intense accretion onto the neutron star, which has an asymmetric magnetic field. Observational consequences that could enable estimation of the role of each acceleration mechanism are discussed. The results are also applicable to binary millisecond radio pulsars, assuming that they have gone through an accretion stage.     

Phenylalanine as a hydroxyl radical-specific probe in pyrite slurries

The abundant iron sulfide mineral pyrite has been shown to catalytically produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and hydroxyl radical ( ^. OH) in slurries of oxygenated water. Understanding the formation and fate of these reactive oxygen species is important to biological and ecological systems as exposure can lead to deleterious health effects, but also environmental engineering during the optimization of remediation approaches for possible treatment of contaminated waste streams. This study presents the use of the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) to monitor the kinetics of pyrite-induced ^. OH formation through rates of hydroxylation forming three isomers of tyrosine (Tyr) - ortho-, meta-, and para-Tyr. Results indicate that about 50% of the Phe loss results in Tyr formation, and that these products further react with ^. OH at rates comparable to Phe. The overall loss of Phe appeared to be pseudo first-order in [Phe] as a function of time, but for the first time it is shown that initial rates were much less than first-order as a function of initial substrate concentration, [Phe]_o. These results can be rationalized by considering that the effective concentration of ^. OH in solution is lower at a higher level of reactant and that an increasing fraction of ^. OH is consumed by Phe-degradation products as a function of time. A simplified first-order model was created to describe Phe loss in pyrite slurries which incorporates the [Phe]_o, a first-order dependence on pyrite surface area, the assumption that all Phe degradation products compete equally for the limited supply of highly reactive ^. OH, and a flux that is related to the release of H₂O₂ from the pyrite surface (a result of the incomplete reduction of oxygen at the pyrite surface). An empirically derived rate constant, K _pyr , was introduced to describe a variable ^. OH-reactivity for different batches of pyrite. Both the simplified first-order kinetic model, and a more detailed numerical simulation, yielded results that compare well to the observed kinetic data describing the effects of variations in concentrations of both initial Phe and pyrite. This work supports the use of Phe as a useful probe to assess the formation of ^. OH in the presence of pyrite, and its possible utility for similar applications with other minerals.     

Elliptical motions of stars in close binary systems

The motion of stars in close binary systems with conservative mass transfer is considered. It is shown that the Paczynski-Huang model that is currently used to determine the variations of the semimajor axis of the relative orbit of the stars is not correct, and leads to large errors in the derived semi-major axis. A new model is proposed, suitable for elliptical stellar orbits. The reaction forces and gravitational forces between the stars and the stream of overflowing matter are taken into account. The possibility of mass transfer in the presence of an accretion disk is considered.     

Radio pulsars in close binaries with neutron stars

The initial distribution of young radio pulsars, reconstructed from the observed distribution of their spatial velocities distorted by observational selection effects, taking into account the age and spatial distribution of radio pulsars with measured spatial velocities, appears to be bimodal. Most young pulsars are formed with velocities of ～100 km/s. Some fraction of young radio pulsars display an almost flat velocity distribution (dv/dv ≈ const) from 150 to 1000 km/s. Scenario modeling in the absence of an additional (kick) velocity acquired by the young neutron star during its formation in a supernova explosion can reproduce the initial velocity distribution of radio pulsars, but results in a higher fraction of radio pulsars in binaries than is observed. Assuming a random initial Maxwellian kick velocity of ～100 km/s makes it possible to reduce the fraction of radio pulsars in binaries to the observed value (<1%), while leaving the velocity distribution for radio pulsars close to the observed bimodal initial distribution. Such kick velocities are also able to explain the observed distribution of radio pulsars in close binaries in the eccentricity—orbital period plane.     

The mechanism of circumbinary envelope formation in close binaries

We consider the structure and formation of the circumbinary envelopes in semi-detached binary systems. Three-dimensional numerical simulations of the gas dynamics are used to study the flow pattern in a binary system after it has reached the steady-state accretion regime. The outer parts of the circumbinary envelope are replenished by periodic ejections from the accretion disk and circum-disk halo through the vicinity of the Lagrange point L₃. In this mechanism, the shape and position of a substantial part of the disk is specified by a precessional density wave. On timescales comparable to the orbital period, the precessional wave (and hence an appreciable fraction of the disk) will be virtually stationary in the observer’s frame, whereas the positions of other elements of the flow will vary due to the orbital rotation. The periodic variations of the positions of the disk and the bow shock formed when the inner parts of the circumbinary envelope flow around the disk result in variations in both the rate of angular-momentum transfer to the disk and the flow structure near L₃. All these factors lead to a periodic increase of the matter flow into the outer layers of the circumbinary envelope through the vicinity of L₃. The total duration of the ejection is approximately half the orbital period.     

Black holes in close binary systems and galactic nuclei

After 50 years of observational studies of black holes, great progress has been achieved in this branch of astrophysics. Several dozen stellar-mass black holes have been discovered in X-ray binaries, and several hundred supermassive black holes in galactic nuclei. The remarkable recent discovery of gravitational waves from merging black holes in a binary system by LIGO marks the beginning of a new stage in black-hole research. It is quite possible that gravitational-wave studies will provide definitive evidence for the existence of event horizons in black holes in the near future. On the other hand, the development of methods for space and ground-based radio-interferometry observations provides hope that it will be possible to obtain images of “shadows” of supermassive black holes in galactic nuclei, and to observe directly processes occurring in the vicinities of the event horizons of supermassive black holes. This is important for tests of general relativity in extremely strong gravitational fields.     

Neutron stars in close binaries with elliptical component orbits

We consider the evolution of close binaries in which the initial secondary component is a nondegenerate helium star with mass M_He = 0.4–60 M_⊙, while the initially more massive primary has evolved into a black hole, neutron star, or degenerate dwarf. The neutron star is assumed to originate as a result of the evolution of a helium star with a mass of 2.5 M_⊙ ≤ M_He ≤ 10 M_⊙ after the explosion of a type Ib,c supernova. If the axial rotation of the helium star before the explosion is rigid-body and synchronized with the orbital rotation, for P_orb ≤ 0.16 day, the rotational energy of the young neutron star will exceed the energy of an ordinary supernova. If the magnetic field of the neutron star is sufficiently strong, the necessary conditions for a magnetic-rotational supernova are provided. The initial rotational period of a young neutron star originating in a system with an orbital period shorter than ～50 days is shorter than ～4 s, which, according to observations, is required for the appearance of a radio pulsar. A helium star whose mass exceeds ～10 M_⊙ in a close binary with an orbital period shorter than one day and with the axial rotation of the helium presupernova synchronous with the orbital rotation evolves into a Kerr black hole, whose formation is likely to be accompanied by a gamma-ray burst with a duration longer than two seconds. In particular, we consider close binaries in which the second supernova results in the formation of a neutron star that remains in the binary. The theoretical distribution of orbital periods and eccentricities for such systems is consistent with that observed for radio pulsars in the Galactic disk in binaries with compact components and orbital eccentricities exceeding ～0.09, providing an explanation for the observed correlation between the orbital eccentricities and orbital periods for these systems.     

氯羟磷灰石中羟基的FTIR研究

通过固相法合成了一系列氯羟磷灰石(ClHAp)固溶体,经FTIR表征发现,纯羟基磷灰石(HAp)的羟基振动频率为3572cm-1和632cm-1。当Cl-进入HAp晶体结构后,在3494cm-1和673cm-1处各出现新的吸收谱带,说明在其通道结构中形成[Cl…HO]氢键,导致羟基的伸缩振动向低频偏移,弯曲振动向高频偏移。与氟羟磷灰石的FTIR谱比较可知:ClHAp的羟基振动谱带的位置与数量主要受氢键和周围结构环境变化程度影响。     

An experimental investigation of hydroxyl solubility in jadeite and Na-rich clinopyroxenes

The solubility and incorporation mechanisms of water in synthetic, water-saturated jadeite and Na-rich clinopyroxenes have been experimentally investigated. Infrared spectra for water-saturated jadeite synthesised from 2.0 to 10 GPa show two prominent sharp peaks at 3,373 and 3,613 cm^–1 together with several weaker features in the OH-stretching region, indicating that there are at least 5 distinct modes of hydrogen incorporation in the structure. Water solubility in pure jadeite reaches a maximum of about 450 ppm by weight at 2 GPa and slowly decreases with increasing pressure to about 100 ppm at 10 GPa. Solubility can be described by the function c_OH=A f_H2O^0.5 exp (–PV_Solid/RT), where c_OH is water solubility in ppm H₂O by weight, A is 7.144 ppm/bar^0.5, f_H2O is water fugacity, and V_Solid=8.019 cm³/mol is the volume change of the clinopyroxene upon incorporation of OH. Jadeite provides a good model for understanding hydrogen incorporation mechanisms in more complex omphacite compositions. Assignment of absorption bands in IR spectra verifies the importance of cation vacancies on the M2 site in providing mechanisms for hydrogen incorporation. However, results also suggest that substitution of lower valency cations onto the M1 site may also be important. Solid solution of jadeite with diopside and in particular, with Ca-Eskola component leads to a drastic increase of water solubility, and the bulk composition has a more important effect on the capacity of omphacite to store water than pressure and temperature. Omphacite is expected to be the major carrier of water in a subducted eclogite after the breakdown of hydrous minerals.Editorial responsibility: W. Schreyer     

The mass spectrum of black holes in close binary systems

We present the results of population syntheses obtained using our “scenario machine.” The mass spectra of black holes in X-ray binary systems before and after the stage of accretion from an optical companion are obtained for various evolutionary scenarios. The results of the model computations are compared to observational data. The observational data are used to estimate the fraction of a presupernova’s mass that collapses into a black hole. This model can explain the formation of low-mass (2–4M_⊙) black holes in binary systems with optical companions. We show that the number of low-mass black holes in the Galaxy is sufficiently high for them to be detected. The population-synthesis results suggest that the vast majority of low-mass black holes are formed via the accretion-induced collapse of neutron stars. The percentage of low-mass black holes in binary systems that form due to accretion-induced collapse is 2–15% of the total number of black holes in binaries, depending on the evolutionary scenario.     

近景摄影测量中活动控制系统的设计与实现

应边坡岩体结构面几何信息测量的需要,设计并制作了一套活动控制系统。经过实验验证,制作的活动控制系统结构稳定,携带方便,控制点成像清晰,活动控制架在室内的控制点点位中误差为 ± 2 mm,在野外环境下控制点点位中误差为± 3. 5 mm。可为近景摄影测量提供快速有效控制,满足近景摄影测量中被测目标测量的精度需要,可作为近景摄影测量获取低矮边坡岩体结构面信息的有效控制。