On the model of the accumulation of the moon compatible with the data on the composition and the age of lunar rocks

It is suggested that the overall early melting of the lunar surface is not necessary for the explanation of facts and that the structure of highlands is more complicated than a solidified anorthositic ‘plot’. The early heating of the interior of the Moon up to 1000K is really needed for the subsequent thermal history with the maximum melting 3.5 × 10⁹ yr ago, to give the observed ages for mare basalts. This may be considered as an indication that the Moon during the accumulation retained a portion of its gravitational energy converted into heat, which may occur only at rapid processes. A rapid (t < 10³ yr) accretion of the Moon from the circumterrestrial swarm of small particles would give necessary temperature, but it is not compatible with the characteristic time 10⁸ yr of the replenishment of this swarm which is the same as the time-scale of the accumulation of the Earth. It is shown that there were conditions in the circumterrestial swarm for the formation at a first stage of a few large protomoons. Their number and position is evaluated from the simple formal laws of the growth of satellites in the vicinity of a planet. Such ‘systems’ of protomoons are compared with the observed multiple systems, and the conclusion is reached that there could have been not more than 2–3 large protomoons with the Earth. The tidal evolution of protomoon orbits was short not only for the present value of the tidal phase-lag but also for a considerably smaller value. The coalescence of protomoons into a single Moon had to occur before the formation of the observed relief on the Moon. If we accept the age 3.9 × 10⁹ yr for the excavation of the Imbrium basin and ascribe the latter to the impact of an Earth satellite, this collision had to be roughly at 30R, whereR is the radius of the Earth, because the Moon at that time had to be somewhere at this distance. Therefore, the protomoons had to be orbiting inside 20–25R, and their coalescence had to occur more than 4.0x10⁹ yr ago. The energy release at coalescence is equivalent to several hundred degrees and even 1000 K. The process is very rapid (of the order of one hour). Therefore, the model is valid for the initial conditions of the Moon.     

Enhanced X-ray emission above 3.5 keV in active regions in the absence of flares

We demonstrate that even in the absence of flares there are very often volumes of hot plasma in the corona above active regions with temperatures in excess of 10 million degrees. Characteristics of this hot plasma and its time variations seem to be different in active regions of different phase of development. These hot plasma regions are sources of very weak, but clearly recognizable, X-ray emission above 3.5 keV. Long-lived X-ray brightenings, 10⁴ times weaker than a flare, but lasting up to 10 hr occur predominantly along the H _∥ = 0 line, apparently low in the corona. After major flares, long-lived X-ray emission is also radiated from tops of arches extending high into the corona. Some other long-lived sources, far from the H_∥ = 0 line, may be associated with newly emerging flux. Short-lived X-ray sources, with fluxes ranging from subflare levels to 10^?3 times the flare flux, last for 2 to more than 30 min and are probably microflares. They seem to be most frequent in growing young active regions and appear often in areas with newly emerging flux.     

The secular behavior of X-ray and radio emission from supernova remnants

General models for the secular behavior of the radio and X-ray emission from supernova remnants are examined and compared with the observations. Hot plasma and synchrotron models for the X-ray emission are considered. Among other things, it is concluded that (1) the total kinetic energy released in most supernova outbursts is probably less than about 10⁵¹ ergs; (2) continuous injection probably occurs for at least 10 yr in every case and about 1000 yr in most supernova remnants, in which case the supernova remnants 3C392, W28, Pup A and IC443 should produce 1–10 keV X-ray fluxes 10^–10 ergs/cm² sec; and (3) the X-ray sources in the Crab Nebula, Cas A and Tycho can be explained in terms of a model wherein continuous injection occurs for 300 yr for the Crab Nebula, much less than 250 yr for Cas A and much longer than 400 yr for Tycho. Finally, it is shown that if Tycho and Cas A contain an X-ray star such as NP0532, it is quite possible that the X-ray emission from those sources is predominantly due to the X-ray star.Supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research under Contract No. F44620-67-C-0065.     

Theoretical,observational, and isotopic estimates of the lifetime of the solar nebula

Abstract— There are a variety of isotopic data for meteorites which suggest that the protostellar nebula existed and was involved in making planetary materials for some 10⁷ yr or more. Many cosmochemists, however, advocate alternative interpretations of such data in order to comply with a perceived constraint, from theoretical considerations, that the nebula existed only for a much shorter time, usually stated as ≤ 10⁶ yr. In this paper, we review evidence relevant to solar nebula duration which is available through three different disciplines: theoretical modelling of star formation, isotopic data from meteorites, and astronomical observations of T Tauri stars. Theoretical models based on observations of present star-forming regions indicate that stars like the Sun form by dynamical gravitational collapse of dense cores of cold molecular clouds in the interstellar medium. The collapse to a star and disk occurs rapidly, on a time scale of the order 10⁵ yr. Disks evolve by dissipating energy while redistributing angular momentum, but it is difficult to predict the rate of evolution, particularly for low mass (compared to the star) disks which nonetheless still contain enough material to account for the observed planetary system. There is no compelling evidence, from available theories of disk structure and evolution, that the solar nebula must have evolved rapidly and could not have persisted for more than 1 Ma. In considering chronologically relevant isotopic data for meteorites, we focus on three methodologies: absolute ages by U-Pb/Pb-Pb, and relative ages by short-lived radionuclides (especially ²⁶Al) and by evolution of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr. Two kinds of meteoritic materials-refractory inclusions such as CAIs and differentiated meteorites (eucrites and angrites)—appear to have experienced potentially dateable nebular events. In both cases, the most straightforward interpretations of the available data indicate nebular events spanning several Ma. We also consider alternative interpretations, particularly the hypothesis of radically heterogeneous distribution of ²⁶Al, which would avoid these chronological interpretations. The principal impetus for such alternative interpretations seems to be precisely the obviation of the chronological interpretation (i.e., the presumption rather than the inference of a short (≤1 Ma) lifetime of the nebula). Astronomical observations of T Tauri stars indicate that the presence of dusty disks is a common if not universal feature, that the disks are massive enough to accomodate a planetary system such as ours, and that at least some persist for 10⁷ yr or more. The results are consistent with the time scales inferred from the meteorite isotopic data. They cannot be considered conclusive with regard to solar nebula time scales, however, in part because it is difficult to relate disk observations to processes that affect meteorites, and in part because the ages assigned for these stars could be wrong by a factor of several in either direction. We conclude that the balance of available evidence favors the view that the nebula existed and was active for at least several Ma. However, because the evidence is not definitive, it is important that the issue be perceived to be an open question, whose answer should be sought rather than presumed.     

Discovery of an optical flare from GRB 060926 by the MASTER robotic telescope: Possible formation of a marginally rotating black hole

The MASTER robotic telescope has obtained the first optical images of GRB 060926. We have discovered an optical flare from GRB 060926, a recurrent brightening that closely follows its behavior in the X-ray range. We have determined the spectral slope for GRB 060926 from the X-ray to optical range in the first minutes. Based on the spinar model, we show that the parameters of the optical and X-ray flares suggest that the gamma-ray burst resulted from the core collapse of a 7M _⊙ star with an initial effective Kerr parameter of 7.6 and an initial magnetic-to-gravitational energy ratio of 10^?4.     

Nuclear gamma-ray lines from Cen A: Evidence for their origin in relativistic plasma

An analysis of the experimental data on nuclear gamma-ray lines from Cen A reveals essential energetic difficulties, associated with the usual interpretation of these lines as a result of interactions of subcosmic rays with interstellar gas; since the necessary instantaneous energy loss rate of the cosmic rays should reach tremendous values of about 10⁴⁸–10⁴⁹ ergs s^–1. These difficulties are eliminated if the gamma rays are produced in the relativistic non-isothermal plasma near a compact source of activity — such as a massive black hole or a magnetoid (spinar).     

Past and recent changes in air and permafrost temperatures in eastern Siberia

Air and ground temperatures measured in Eastern Siberia has been compiled and analyzed. The analysis of mean annual air temperatures measured at 52 meteorological stations within and near the East-Siberian transect during the period from 1956 through 1990 demonstrates a significant and statistically significant (at 0.05 level) positive trend ranging from 0.065 to 0.59 °C/10 yr. A statistically significant (at 0.05 level) positive trend was also observed in mean annual ground temperatures for the same period. The permafrost temperature reflects changes in air temperature on a decadal time scale much better than on an interannual time scale. Generally, positive trends in mean annual ground temperatures are slightly smaller in comparison with trends in mean annual air temperatures, except for several sites where the discordance between the air and ground temperatures can be explained by the winter snow dynamics. The average trend for the entire region was 0.26 °C/10 yr for ground temperatures at 1.6 m depth and 0.29 °C/10 yr for the air temperatures. The most significant trends in mean annual air and ground temperatures were in the southern part of the transect, between 55° and 65° N. Numerical modeling of ground temperatures has been performed for Yakutsk and Tiksi for the last 70 yr. Comparing the results of these calculations with a similar time series obtained for Fairbanks and Barrow in Alaska shows that similar variations of ground temperatures took place at the same time periods in Yakutsk and Fairbanks, and in Tiksi and Barrow. The decadal and longer time scale fluctuations in permafrost temperatures were pronounced in both regions. The magnitudes of these fluctuations were on the order of a few degrees centigrade. The fluctuations of mean annual ground temperatures were coordinated in Fairbanks and Yakutsk, and in Barrow and Tiksi. However, the magnitude and timing of these fluctuations were slightly different for each of the sites.     

Analysis of the Precision of Pulsar Time Clock Modeltwo

Millisecond pulsars have a very high rotation stability, which can be applied to many research fields, such as the establishment of the pulsar time standard, the detection of gravitational wave, the spacecraft navigation by using X-ray pulsars and so on. In this paper, we employ two millisecond pulsars PSR J0437-4715 and J1713+0743, which are observed by the International Pulsar Timing Array (IPTA), to analyze the precision of pulsar clock parameter and the prediction accuracy of pulse time of arrival (TOA). It is found that the uncertainty of spin frequency is 10^?15 Hz, the uncertainty of the first derivative of spin frequency is 10^?23 s^?2, and the precision of measured rotational parameters increases by one order of magnitude with the accumulated observational data every 4～5 years. In addition, the errors of TOAs within 4.8 yr which are predicted by the clock model established by the 10 yr data of J0437-4715 are less than 1 μs. Therefore, one can use the pulsar time standard to calibrate the atomic clock, and make the atomic time deviate from the TT (Terrestrial Time) less than 1 μs within 4.8 yr.     

Compact sources of suprathermal microwave emission detected in quiescent active regions during lunar occultations

Solar quiescent active regions are known to exhibit radio emission from discrete structures. The knowledge of their dimensions and brightness temperatures is essential for understanding the physics of quiescent, confined plasma regions. Solar eclipses of 10 August, 1980 and 26 January, 1990, observed with high sensitivity and high time resolution at 22 GHz, allowed an unprecedented opportunity to identify Fresnel diffraction effects during lunar occultations of active regions. The results indicate the presence of quiescent discrete sources smaller than one arcsecond in one dimension. Assuming symmetrical sources, their brightness temperatures were larger than 2 × 10⁷ K and 8 × 10⁷ K, for the 1980 and 1990 observations, respectively.In memoriam, 1942–1981.     

Can molecular clouds live long?

It is generally accepted that the lifetime of molecular clouds does not exceed 3×10⁷ yr due to disruption by stellar feedback. We put together some arguments giving evidence that a substantial fraction of molecular clouds (primarily in the outer regions of a disc) may avoid destruction process for at least 10⁸ yr or even longer. A molecular cloud can live long if massive stars are rare or absent. Massive stars capable to destroy a cloud may not form for a long time if a cloud is low massive, or stellar initial mass function is top-light, or if there is a delay of the beginning of active star formation. A long duration of the inactive phase of clouds may be reconciled with the low amount of the observed starless giant molecular clouds if to propose that they were preceded by slowly contraction phase of the magnetized dark gas, non-detected in CO-lines.     

The instability of strong magnetic fields in stellar interiors

There has been discussion of the possibility of resolving the solar neutrino dilemma with a sufficiently strong magnetic field (5×10⁸ G) in the solar interior to relieve the gas pressure by some ten percent or more. We examine the time in which magnetic buoyancy will bring a strong field to the surface and find it to be less than 10⁸ yr. We see no possibility for retaining a suitably strong magnetic field in the solar interior.     

The evolution of the moon

The thermal evolution of the Moon as it can be defined by the available data and theoretical calculations is discussed. A wide assortment of geological, geochemical and geophysical data constrain both the present-day temperatures and the thermal history of the lunar interior. On the basis of these data, the Moon is characterized as a differentiated body with a crust, a 1000-km-thick solid mantle (lithosphere) and an interior region (core) which may be partially molten. The presence of a crust indicates extensive melting and differentiation early in the lunar history. The ages of lunar samples define the chronology of igneous activity on the lunar surface. This covers a time span of about 1.5 billion yr, from the origin to about 3.16 billion yr ago. Most theoretical models require extensive melting early in the lunar history, and the outward differentiation of radioactive heat sources.Thermal history calculations, whether based on conductive or convective computation codes define relatively narrow bounds for the present day temperatures in the lunar mantle. In the inner region of the 700 km radius, the temperature limits are wider and are between about 100 and 1600°C at the center of the Moon. This central region could have a partially or totally molten core.The lunar heat flow values (about 30 ergs/cm²s) restrict the present day average uranium abundance to 60 ± 15 ppb (averaged for the whole Moon) with typical ratios of K/U = 2000 and Th/U = 3.5. This is consistent with an achondritic bulk composition for the Moon.The Moon, because of its smaller size, evolved rapidly as compared to the Earth and Mars. The lunar interior is cooling everywhere at the present and the Moon is tectonically inactive while Mars could be and the Earth is definitely active.     

Numerical evaluation of statistical acceleration for energetic particles in the interplanetary medium at 2.5 and 5.0 AU

Numerical integration of particle trajectories is performed to evaluate the statistical acceleration coefficients D _TT for 1 to 100 MeV protons in a solar wind corotating interaction region (CIR) seen at 2.5 and 5.0 AU. Acceleration is followed in the solar wind reference frame and is due to random wave-particle interactions and to random drift motion in moderate scale field gradients. D _TT due to the first effect reaches a peak value of 4 × 10 ^–7 MeV² s^–1 post shock at 10 MeV at 2.5 AU consistent with estimates based both upon cyclotron resonance and transit time damping theory. D _TT from the second effect is less well established but is of the order of 10^–7 MeV² s^–1 at 10 MeV, 5 AU. A comparison is made between the time constant for statistical acceleration within this CIR and estimates for diffuse shock acceleration and adiabatic deceleration. All three time constants are of the same order, but deceleration is faster than shock acceleration which in turn is faster than statistical acceleration.     

The life and death of star clusters

We report on the development of a framework for understanding the demographics of star cluster systems. The model incorporates a universal initial power-law mass function, selected formation histories, selected disruption laws, and a convolution with common artifacts and selection effects found in observational data. An important component of our model is the use of a ‘two-stage’ disruption process, with a very high ‘infant mortality’ rate for the clusters with ages less than ≈10⁸ yr (i.e., roughly 80 to 90% are lost each factor of ten in time, τ, independent of mass), and two-body relaxation, which becomes the dominant disruption mechanism at older ages, preferentially removing the lower-mass clusters. Stars from the dissolved clusters form the field population, and hence the galaxies themselves. We also report on efforts to distinguish stars from clusters in the Antennae galaxies, allowing us to show that the power-law luminosity function for star clusters extends roughly three magnitudes fainter than previously demonstrated, contrary to reports that there is a turnover. Finally, we briefly show that, while triggered star formation in several regions of the Antennae is relatively mild (i.e., producing roughly 10% as many stars as in the previous generation), in some regions there can be an amplification of a factor of four or more.     

Active Regions Observed in Extreme Ultraviolet Light by the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer on Soho

We present observations of five active regions made by the Coronal Diagnostic Spectrometer (CDS) on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). CDS observes the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet range 150–780 Å. Examples of active region loops seen in spectral lines emitted at various temperatures are shown. Several classes of loops are identified: those that are seen in all temperatures up to 2 x 10⁶ K; loops seen at 10⁶ K but not reaching 1.6 x 10⁶ K; those at temperatures 2– 4 x 10^-5 K and occasionally at 6 x 10^-5 K but not reaching 10⁶ K. An increasing loop size with temperature and the relationship between the cool and hot structures is discussed. CDS observations reveal the existence of loops and other unresolved structures in active regions, at temperatures between 1.5– 4 x 10^-5 K, which do not have counterparts in lines emitted above 8 x 10^-5 K. Bright compact sources only seen in the transition region lines are investigated. These sources can have lifetimes of up to several days and are located in the vicinity of sunspots. We study the variability of active region sources on time scales from 30 sec to several days. We find oscillatory behaviour of Hei and Ov line intensities in an active region on time scales of 5–10 min.     

Inverse Bremsstrahlung in Astrophysical Plasmas: The Absorption Coefficients and Gaunt Factors

The electron–ion inverse Bremsstrahlung is considered here as a factor of the influence on the opacity of the different stellar atmospheres and other astrophysical plasmas. It is shown that this process can be successfully described in the frames of cut-off Coulomb potential model within the regions of the electron densities and temperatures. The relevant quantum mechanical method of the calculation of the corresponding spectral coefficient processes is described and discussed. The results obtained for the plasmas with the electron densities from 10¹⁴ cm ^?3 to 2?10¹⁹ cm ^?3 and temperatures from 5?10³ K to 3?10⁴ K in the wavelength region 100 nm<λ<3000 nm are presented. Also, these results can be of interest for different laboratory plasmas.     

On the lifetimes of galactic clusters

From the observed age distribution of galactic clusters within 1 kpc we deduce that the typical total lifetime of a galactic cluster is about 2×10⁸ yr. The individual lifetimes vary between 10⁸ and 10¹⁰ yr. The observed lifetimes are compared with the evaporation times which are found from numerical experiments with star cluster models. These models contain up to 250 stars with a realistic mass spectrum. The effect of the galactic tidal field is taken into account and enhances the rate of escape significantly. Escapers are identified by using the Jacobian integral. We give the evaporation time in years as a function of the median radius for different values of the total mass of a cluster. The agreement between the resulting theoretical lifetimes and the observed values is sufficiently good. We estimate that the tidal field of passing interstellar clouds should be in most cases less efficient in dissolving a galactic cluster than the internal evaporation process combined with the effect of the general galactic field.     

A theory of the Jovian hydrogen torus

The Jovian hydrogen torus associated with Io, that was observed by Judge and Carlson, has been found by them to be a third of a torus rather than a complete torus. It is shown that the energetic particles observed by Pioneer 10 do not ionize atomic hydrogen sufficiently fast to erode the torus as observed. It is proposed that the reason an incomplete torus exists is the presence of a corotating cold magnetospheric plasma. If this explanation is correct, the angular extent of the fractional torus is a measure of the density of the magnetospheric plasma near Io's orbit, which is found to be ～10²cm^?3. It is shown that such a plasma may provide an adequate input to Io, where it can recombine and escape, to form enough hydrogen atoms to explain the number of observed torus atoms. Thus the magnetospheric plasma may serve as both the source and the sink of the torus. However, while it is not difficult to make the plasma be the sink of the toroidal hydrogen, it is difficult (although perhaps possible) to self-consistently make it the source. It may be necessary to invoke some other mechanism to generate the hydrogen.     

Analysis of crater distributions in mare units on the lunar far side

Mare material is asymmetrically distributed on the Moon. The Earth-facing hemisphere, where the crust is believed to be 26 km thinner than on the farside, contains substantially more basaltic mare material. Using Lunar Topographic Orthophoto Maps, we calculated the thickness of the mare material in three farside craters, Aitken (0.59 km), Isaev (1.0 km), and Tsiolkovskiy (1.75 km). We also studied crater frequency distribution in five farside mare units (Aitken, Isaev, Lacus Solitudinis, Langemak, and Tsiolkovskiy) and one light plains unit (in Mendeleev). Nearly 10 000 farside craters were counted. Analysis of the crater frequency on the light plains unit gives an age of 4.3 billion yr. Crater frequency distributions on the mare units indicate ages of 3.7 and 3.8 billion yr, suggesting that the units are distributed over a narrow time period of approximately 100 million yr. Returned lunar samples from nearside maria give dates as young as 3.1 billion yr. The results of this study suggest that mare basalt emplacement on the far side ceased before it did on the near side.     

On the accretion of the earth and moon

The bodies which produced the premare impact craters on the moon contained a much higher proportion of smaller bodies in the earliest observable times than subsequently. This suggests that the earth and moon accreted from small objects with only an occasional large planetoid.If the earliest observable lunar craters are 4.3 × 10⁹ yr old, the half-life of the primitive planetesimals which produced the giant lunar craters larger than 161 km in diameter, was 143 × 10⁶ yr, while the half-life of the primitive planetesimals which produced lunar craters larger than 1 km in diameter was only 88 × 10⁶ yr. The half-life of the bodies which produced 1 km craters was still shorter, about 75 × 10⁶ yr.