桑迪飓风的“叫醒服务”

桑迪飓风给它所“莅临”之处都造成了巨大的灾害，同时也在全球范围内激发了人们的密切关注，焦点问题纷纷集中于气候变化领域。虽然尚未找到确切的证据将气候变化与桑迪飓风之间令人信服地联系起来．但是牙买加资深气候谈判专家、气象服务部气候司的兜利夫·马龙认为，桑迪飓风的登陆过程非常复杂，此番，它作为一级飓风系统于10月24日在牙买加登陆，之后，又席卷海地、巴哈马等地，后来又肆虐美幽，这种势头不容忽视。     

海平面上升对海南岛沿海地区的影响

因气候变暖导致的海平面上升是全球面临的海洋问题。为加强海南岛的海洋防灾减灾工作,保障其沿海地区的生态环境和经济社会发展,文章在调查评估的基础上,分析海平面上升对海南岛沿海地区的影响,并提出对策建议。研究结果表明:我国沿海海平面总体呈波动上升趋势,海南岛沿海海平面的上升速率居全国之首;海平面上升对海南岛沿海地区的影响主要包括淹没滨海低地和减小旅游区沙滩面积,加重风暴潮、海岸侵蚀、海水入侵和土壤盐渍化、洪涝的灾害程度以及影响海岸防护设施等方面;在海南岛沿海地区发展中,应充分考虑海平面上升的因素,加强灾害风险抵御能力建设、城市科学规划、海平面观测和监测以及受损岸线整治修复等工作。     

浙江省风暴潮灾害重点防御区划定技术方法探讨

为推进浙江省海洋灾害重点防御区划定工作,提高沿海地区海洋灾害风险管理水平,文章在浙江省风暴潮灾害风险评估和重点防御区划定试点工作的基础上,提炼重点防御区划定的关键技术问题,初步提出划定技术环节、流程和有关技术要求。该技术方法可为浙江省其他县（市、区）划定风暴潮灾害重点防御区提供参考,对沿海地区提高海洋灾害防御能力、保护人民生命财产安全和促进海洋经济发展具有积极的现实意义。     

我国南海沿海台风及暴潮灾害趋势分析

利用中国气象局上海台风研究所(CMA)和国家海洋局(SOA)数据资料, 对南海沿海台风活动(1949—2016)和风暴潮灾害趋势(1989—2016)进行了统计分析。结果表明, 南海地区台风年登陆频数整体上呈微弱减少趋势, 但强台风影响及强度呈加强趋势; 1990年代中期台风登陆频数出现显著突变, 粤东地区受高强度台风的影响变得频繁, 粤西地区从2007年开始台风登陆强度逐年增强; 研究区域内台风强度分布一致性较好。文章还总结了典型的热带气旋路径, 分析了不同入射角范围的台风在强度和地区分布上占比的变化规律, 指出近年来中国南海沿海地区年强台风暴潮灾害发生频数增多, 年最大风暴潮等级有增大趋势。     

广西主要海洋灾害及今后防御对策

广西沿海地区是我国富饶的地区之一，但历年这里有各种各样的海洋灾害，这个问题最近已受到了充分的重视。本文根据现有的地面观测气候资料来研究广西主要海洋灾害，侧重分析了热带气旋（台风）、寒潮和冷空气、大风、强对流天气、风暴潮和雾等海洋灾害，提出今后防御对策。     

中国沿海海平面上升风险区划方法研究

气候变化引起的海平面上升将给沿海地区社会经济发展和生态环境带来严重的影响。中国沿海地区地势低平极易受到海平面上升的直接影响,本文研究提出了一套适用于中国沿海地区海平面上升风险区划的方法,评估中国地区海平面上升的风险,分别按照省级评估单元和市级评估单元区划中国沿海地区的海平面上升风险,并提出风险管理的建议。     

近20年中国沿海风暴潮强度、时空分布与灾害损失

中国是世界上风暴潮灾害最为严重的国家之一,最近20年,风暴潮灾害带来的经济损失呈波动上升趋势,其造成的直接经济损失总共高达2443.64亿元;风暴潮灾害造成的伤亡人数总体呈下降趋势,其造成的死亡、失踪人数共为4128人。分析了近20年来我国沿海地区风暴潮灾害的次数和强度、时空分布及其与灾害损失的相关关系。结果表明:在全球变暖背景下,我国风暴潮灾害的次数和强度呈增加的趋势、风暴潮灾害时空分布具有相对集中性,但其发生的时间跨度有延长的趋势、风暴潮强度和时空分布与灾害损失有一定的相关关系,但不一定成正比关系。研究风暴潮灾害形成机理,评估风暴潮灾情等级,完善风暴潮灾害预警体系,加强风暴潮减灾工程建设,采取综合措施防御大规模围垦区的风暴潮灾害,对中国沿海地区可持续发展具有十分重要的意义。     

海平面上升对我国沿海地区的影响及其适应对策

近30年来,我国沿海海平面平均上升速率为2.6 mm/a,高于全球均值,未来上升趋势还将持续.海平面上升已经并将持续造成海水淹没范围扩大、加剧海洋灾害威胁、破坏典型生态系统健康,对沿海地区经济社会可持续发展提出了重大挑战,这包括海洋灾害造成巨大经济损失、海平面上升加大沿海地区的气候脆弱性和未来面临多因素叠加的风险.此外,海平面上升对我国国土安全造成的威胁不容忽视.为此,建议急需从国家战略层面统筹规划,全面做好海平面上升的适应工作,尤其是解决好沿海经济社会发展中面临的三个问题,即“海平面上升与沿海经济发展的关系问题”、“海平面上升与维护海洋权益的关系问题”以及“海平面上升与近岸生态环境保护的关系问题”,在相关政策法规与管理机制、规划评估与研究、标准规范与工程建设、监测预警能力建设等方面持续推进提高并加以完善.这既是我国应对气候变化的紧迫任务之一,也是实现我国沿海地区经济社会持续平稳较快发展的重要保障.     

山东沿海的风暴潮灾害及其防御对策研究

山东沿海地区是风暴潮灾害频发区域之一,其中,莱州湾西南部沿岸为我国温带风暴潮最频繁和最严重的地区,历史上曾发生过多次严重的风暴潮灾害。风暴潮灾害已经成为影响乃至制约山东沿海地区经济发展的一个重要因素。文章通过近年来的现场调查并结合历史资料分析,概括性地总结出了山东省沿海风暴潮成因、发生频率和历史风暴潮灾害及其变化规律等,认为随着山东省经济社会的快速发展,风暴潮灾害造成的损失呈逐年增加趋势;在分析了现有防御能力及存在问题等的基础上,结合山东省海洋防灾减灾的实际需要,从工程性和非工程性两个方面提出了具体的防御对策。     

中国沿海海岸侵蚀与海平面上升探析

海岸侵蚀是我国沿海地区的主要环境地质灾害之一,海平面上升将加剧海岸侵蚀灾害程度,其长期影响不容忽视。文章阐述了海平面上升对海岸侵蚀的影响机制,在详细分析我国海岸侵蚀状况相关调查成果的基础上,根据沿海海平面上升的区域特征,探讨了未来海平面上升背景下沿海地区海岸侵蚀灾害的主要脆弱区,以期为沿海地区及时有效地应对海平面上升这一缓发性灾害提供参考依据。     

Mitigating damage costs from hurricane strikes along the southeastern U.S. Coast: A role for insurance markets

Damage costs from hurricanes have increased dramatically as hurricane strikes, populations, and property values have increased along the U.S. southeastern and Gulf Coast states. Federal expenditures in hurricane affected areas and coastal property insurance costs have increased as well. We discuss current public and private sector actions that impact damage costs and consider ways to mitigate future damage costs and government financial exposure. Encouraging adaptive and avoidance measures through market signals and government policies, and protecting areas such as wetlands which mitigate storm damage will help limit damage from hurricanes.     

A review of the climatological characteristics of landfalling Gulf hurricanes for wind, wave, and surge hazard estimation

The climatological characteristics of landfalling Gulf of Mexico hurricanes are presented, focusing on the basic parameters needed for accurately determining the structure and intensity of hurricanes for ocean response models. These include the maximum sustained wind, radius of maximum winds, the Holland-B parameter, the peripheral or far-field pressure, the surface roughness and coefficient of drag, and the central pressure for historical hurricanes in the Gulf.Despite evidence of a slight increase in the annual number of named storms over the past 50 years, presently there is no statistically significant trend in tropical storms, hurricanes, or major hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico. In addition, the long-term variability of tropical cyclones in the Gulf reflects the observed variability in the Atlantic basin as a whole. Analyses of hurricane winds from multiple sources suggest the presence of a bias toward overestimating the strength of winds in the HURDAT dataset from 7% to 15%. Results presented comparing HURDAT with other sources also show an overestimation of intensity at landfall, with an estimated bias of ~10%.Finally, a review of recent studies has shown that hurricane frequencies and intensities appear to vary on a much more localized scale than previously believed. This exacerbates the sampling problem for accurate characterization of hurricane parameters for design and operational applications.     

Non-stationary extreme value models to account for trends and shifts in the extreme wave climate due to climate change

The extreme values of wave climate data are of great interest in a number of different ocean engineering applications, including the design and operation of ships and offshore structures, marine energy generation, aquaculture and coastal installations. Typically, the return values of certain met-ocean parameters such as significant wave height are of particular importance. There exist many methods for estimating such return values, including the initial distribution approach, the block maxima approach and the peaks-over threshold approach. In a climate change perspective, projections of such return values to a future climate are of great importance for risk management and adaptation purposes. However, many approaches to extreme value modelling assume stationary conditions and it is not straightforward how to include non-stationarity of the extremes due to for example climate change. In this paper, various non-stationary GEV-models for significant wave height are developed that account for trends and shifts in the extreme wave climate due to climate change. These models are fitted to block maxima in a particular set of wave data obtained for a historical control period and two future projections for a future period corresponding to different emission scenarios. These models are used to investigate whether there are trends in the data within each period that influence the extreme value analysis and need to be taken into account. Moreover, it will be investigated whether there are significant inter-period shifts or trends in the extreme wave climate from the historical period to the future periods. The results from this study suggest that the intra-period trends are not statistically significant and that it might be reasonable to ignore these in extreme value analyses within each period. However, when it comes to comparing the different data sets, i.e. the historical period and the future projections, statistical significant inter-period changes are detected. Hence, the accumulated effect of a climatic trend may not be negligible over longer time periods. Interestingly enough, such statistically significant shifts are not detected if stationary extreme value models are fitted to each period separately. Therefore, the non-stationary extreme value models with inter-period shifts in the parameters are proposed as an alternative for extreme value modelling in a climate change perspective, in situations where historical data and future projections are available.     

Resistance to hurricane disturbance of an epifaunal community on the continental shelf off North Carolina

Hurricane Diana was stalled over the continental shelf of central North Carolina on 11–13 September 1984 in the vicinity of a previously studied epifaunal community (30 m depth). Two research cruises following the hurricane used still camera and TV transects to obtain data which allowed an evaluation of stormrelated effects on taxa of algae, sponges, corals, echinoderms and fish. Analysis of 35-mm slides suggested no effects attributable to the hurricane except observations of damaged coral heads and dead mussels. Analysis of television transects indicated no storm related changes from the previous study in frequency of occurrence of large epibenthic taxa. Hurricane damage was much less than anticipated and it is hypothesized that these coral reef-type communities are adapted to or structured by strong bottom currents generated by the frequent passage of gales and that the passage of hurricanes causes little additional stress.     

The impact of sea level rise and climate change on inshore wave climate: A case study for East Anglia (UK)

In coastal areas, offshore wave propagation towards the shore is influenced by water depth variations, due to sea bed bathymetry, tides and surges. Considering implications of climate change both on atmospheric forcing and sea level rise, a simple methodology involving numerical modelling is implemented to compute inshore waves from 1960 to 2099. Simulations take into account five scenarios of linear sea level rise and one climatic scenario for storm surges and offshore waves. The methodology is applied to the East Anglia coast (UK). Extreme event analysis is performed to estimate climate change implication on inshore waves and the occurrence of extreme events. It is shown, for this coastal region, that wave statistics are sensitive to the trend in sea level rise, and that the climate change scenario leads to a significant increase of extreme wave heights in the northern part of the domain. For nearshore points, the increase of the mean sea level alters not only extreme wave heights but also the frequency of occurrence of extreme wave conditions.     

Assessing climate change impacts on coastal infrastructure in the Eastern Caribbean

Expected effects of changes in global climate include warmer temperatures, rising sea levels, and potentially more frequent and severe extreme weather events such as hurricanes and tropical storms. Low-lying states in the Caribbean are especially vulnerable to these effects, posing significant risks to public safety and natural resources.This paper highlights expected trends in the Eastern Caribbean and examines the impacts of urbanization and supporting infrastructure, siting of major structures in high-hazard areas, and negative land-use practices on fragile coastal ecosystems. It focuses on the need to reduce the vulnerability of coastal infrastructure and land uses, arguing for effective linkages between climate change issues and development planning. The paper also provides general recommendations and identifies challenges for the incorporation of climate change impacts and risk assessment into long-term land-use national development plans and strategies.     

Assessment of hydrodynamic competence in extreme marine events through application of Boussinesq–Green–Naghdi models

Here in present work, rotational Boussinesq–Green–Naghdi models were applied to assess the hydrodynamic intensity through the study of the boulder transport in east coast of Philippines during typhoon Haiyan and damage to coastal residences in New Jersey coast due to hurricane Sandy. The hydrodynamic forces were quantitatively analyzed and correlated to both boulder transport distance and the structural damage state in the two cases. The boulder transport was found initiated at vicinity of infragravity swash bores. Inertial force generated by the acceleration in front of the bore was found increasingly large as boulder sizes increased therefore far from negligible as in some other literatures. Besides, transport distances were highly sensitive to wave-heights and boulder sizes, so that onshore positions might be a viable approach of identifying rough magnitudes of paleostorm before other information is available. Fragility functions to predict the damage state of coastal residences due to runups was derived and preliminary validated. Water velocity and the shielding parameter were identified as major predictors of damage while free board and water depth are relatively insignificant. Due to the relative lack of wind damage observed, nearshore hydrodynamics featuring instantaneous nonhydrostatic impact might be the persistent cause of massive littoral processes and low-level structural failure in coastal regions during extreme marine events. Nonhydrostatic phase-resolving models such as Boussinesq-type models would be necessary complements for the intermediate-scale assessment of marine hazards in coastal ocean.     

Relationship of Rapid Intensification of Tropical Cyclones to Dynamical/Thermodynamical Parameters

Many avenues of research are currently being tried for understanding and predicting hurricane intensity forecasts. We have listed several such research avenues being pursued by the research community. This article addresses the use of high-resolution aircraft reconnaissance datasets used for daily data assimilation over three years of hurricane histories that cover rapid intensification cases. We show a number of dynamical and thermodynamical parameters, derived from these datasets, which seem to hold promise for future use in short range statistical forecasts on rapid intensification. These include the vertical differential of heating in the complete potential vorticity equation, the conversion of divergent kinetic energy to rotational kinetic energy, the transformation of shear vorticity to curvature vorticity, and the advection of the earth's and the relative angular momentum into the inner core of hurricanes. We find a rapid growth in the time history of each of these parameters as the rapid intensification occurs. These are demonstrated for a number of recent hurricanes.     

Hurricane damage along natural and hardened estuarine shorelines: Using homeowner experiences to promote nature-based coastal protection

Growing coastal populations, rising sea levels, and likely increases in the frequency of major storm events will intensify coastal vulnerability in coming decades. Decisions regarding how and when to fortify estuarine shorelines against coastal hazards, such as erosion, flooding, and attendant property damages, rest largely in the hands of waterfront-property owners. Traditionally, hard engineered structures (e.g. bulkheads, revetments, seawalls) have been used to protect coastal properties, based on the assumption that these structures are durable and effective at preventing erosion. This study evaluates the validity of these assumptions by merging results from 689 surveys of waterfront-property owners in NC with empirical shoreline damage data collected along estuarine shorelines after Hurricanes Irene (2011) and Arthur (2014). The data show: 1) homeowners perceive bulkheads to be the most durable and effective at preventing erosion, but also the most costly; 2) compared to residents with revetments and natural shorelines, property owners with bulkheads reported double the price to repair hurricane damage to their property and four times the cost for annual shoreline maintenance; 3) 93% of evident post-hurricane shoreline damage was attributable to bulkheads or bulkhead hybrids and a higher proportion of surveyed homeowners with bulkheads reported having property damage from hurricanes; and, 4) shoreline hardening increased by 3.5% from 2011 to 2016 along 39 km of the Outer Banks. These results suggest that bulkheads are not meeting waterfront property-owner expectations despite continued use, and that nature-based coastal protection schemes may be able to more effectively align with homeowner needs.