Effect of spatial scale on suspended sediment concentration in flood season in hilly loess region on the Loess Plateau in China

Suspended sediment concentration is a major variable influencing soil erosion and loss, study on which at different spatial scales is of great meaning to understand soil erosion mechanism and sediment transport process. Based on data from 4 sloping surfaces and 7 basins ranging from 0.0003 to 187 km² in area, the suspended sediment concentration in flood season (SSC) with drainage area is studied. With increasing drainage area on the slope surfaces, the mean suspended sediment concentration in flood season (MSSC) enhances continuously until a peak value of 685 kg m⁻³ occurs at the whole slope surface No. 7 runoff plot resulting from harder and harder erosion forms downslope. Entering basin systems, the diluted action of subsurface water on the toeslope on MSSC and small water flow power Ω make a minimum MSSC value of 568 kg m⁻³ occur in the first-order basin system Tuanshangou basin at an area of 0.18 km², and then from Tuanshangou basin to larger basins, the positive feedback function among drainage density, water flow energy, and hyperconcentrated flow as well as its reduction of settling velocity of coarser particles generates continuously increasing MSSC with drainage area.     

Hydrograph Separation of the Amazon River: A Methodological Study

The hydrograph separation of the Amazon river was performed using three different methodologies. Were applied isotopic, filter-separation, and mixing methods to estimate the contributions of the surface runoff (event water) and baseflow (pre-event water) components to the total river flow, during the 1973–1974 hydrological years. The importance of the baseflow contribution, mainly during the peak discharge, suggesting that the groundwater plays a much more active and important role in the storm dynamics, was verified. Similar results were obtained for all the methods used, and the applicability of each one was discussed in detail. For the Amazon river basin, the average contribution of the baseflow was 56% of the total river flow, at peak discharge. The average surface runoff contribution, which represents the water capable of mechanical erosion in drainage basins, expressed in terms of the surface runoff coefficient (Kr), was 31.9%, while the mean contribution of the baseflow, expressed by the baseflow coefficient (Kb), was 68.1%.     

Hydrological and geochemical characteristics of the Jamari and Jiparana river basins (Rondonia,Brazil)

The authors investigate the hydrological and geochemical characteristics of the Jamari (30430 km²) and Jiparana (60350 km²) river basins (Amazonia), during the period 1978–1984. A spectral analysis of Fourier is applied to time series of mean monthly river discharges, in order to assess the contribution (7 to 8%) of the surface runoff to the total river flow. The mean annual runoff coefficient calculated for the Jiparana river basin (36%), is higher than for the Jamari (32%), and this coefficient increases during the study period, only for the Jiparana. The total specific suspended sediment discharge calculated for both rivers shows the same value 13 t/km²/y, and the estimated suspended sediment concentration in the surface runoff is slightly superior for the Jiparana river (0.3 g/l) than for the Jamari one (0.2 g/l). The river suspended sediments are mainly composed of kaolinite, quartz and feldspar, but the Jiparana is more enriched in quartz. For both rivers, the dominant clay mineral is the kaolinite which is in agreement with the rock weathering type determined for both basins using the Tardy's weathering index: the monosiallitisation. The total chemical erosion rate calculated after correction for the atmospheric inputs (ions and CO₂), is higher for the Jiparana (10.11 t/km²/y) than for the Jamari river basin (7.75 t/km²/y). These values are lower than the mechanical denudation rate calculated previously for both river basins.     

温冰川冰内及冰下水系季节演化及其水文学分析

针对温冰川冰内及冰下水系(又称冰川排水系统)演化及其水力过程,回顾了我国20世纪90年代在典型温冰川海螺沟冰川开展钻孔试验及关于冰下河堵溃问题的水文学分析,主要从水文学角度,探讨了消融期温冰川冰内及冰下水系的演化过程及其在径流过程曲线上的反映.利用径流-气温交叉相关分析方法,计算了海螺沟冰川2003—2005年逐日Q-T时滞,其季节变化在一定程度上指示了冰内及冰下水系季节演化过程及其水力状况,并针对典型时段,重点探讨了二者之间的相关性.     

Digital model of corrected accumulated flow for peak discharge data acquisition and drainage system design

The design of a drainage system for a roofing slate quarry was implemented by the enhancement of discharge peak estimation, and the uncertainty inevitably associated with the engineering model was reduced.

The development of a topographical, geological, and vegetation cover database developed from a Geographical Information System (GIS) allowed for the definition of the drainage network for a hydraulic system, along with the calculation of the runoff coefficient. This is applied to the digital model of accumulated flow (DMF) as a weight correction coefficient, using a matrix-based model at 5×5 m resolution. The new digital model of corrected accumulated flow (DMCF) is the result of combining the thematic maps with the map of slope <3%, which was previously created from the slope model. It is demonstrated that this new model allows to apply the “Rational Method” on cartographic units defined by the GIS.

The DMCF is compared with other traditional applications of the Rational Method based on the calculation of the discharge peak considering: (1) the drainage basin as a single watershed or (2) defining an average runoff coefficient in each sub-watershed. Both approaches have bigger discharge peaks than those obtained by the DMCF since the slope, lithology, and vegetation cover have average values, and the runoff coefficient is poorly defined, increasing the uncertainty in the discharge peak.     

Future climate change impact evaluation on hydrologic processes in the Bharalu and Basistha basins using SWAT model

Urbanisation and climate change can have adverse effects on the streamflow and water balance components in river basins. This study focuses on the understanding of different hydrologic responses to climate change between urban and rural basins. The comprehensive semi-distributed hydrologic model, SWAT (Soil and Water Assessment Tool), is used to evaluate how the streamflow and water balance components vary under future climate change on Bharalu (urban basin) and Basistha (rural basin) River basins near the Brahmaputra River in India based on precipitation, temperature and geospatial data. Based on data collected in 1990–2012, it is found that 98.78% of the water yield generated for the urban Bharalu River basin is by surface runoff, comparing to 75% of that for the rural Basistha basin. Comparison of various hydrologic processes (e.g. precipitation, discharge, water yield, surface runoff, actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration) based on predicted climate change scenarios is evaluated. The urban Bharalu basin shows a decrease in streamflow, water yield, surface runoff, actual evapotranspiration in contrast to the rural Basistha basin, for the 2050s and 2090s decades. The average annual discharge will increase a maximum 1.43 and 2.20 m³/s from the base period for representative concentration pathways (RCPs) such as 2.6 and 8.5 pathways in Basistha River and it will decrease a maximum 0.67 and 0.46 m³/s for Bharalu River, respectively. This paper also discusses the influence of sensitive parameters on hydrologic processes, future issues and challenges in the rural and urban basins.     

Glacial runoff characteristics of the Koxkar Glacier,Tuomuer-Khan Tengri Mountain Ranges,China

This paper presents the glacial runoff characteristics of the Koxkar Glacier, China using flow records collected near the snout of the glacier in four consecutive years (2005–2008). The mean annual discharge of the Koxkar Glacier is 102.86 × 10⁶ m³, in which 93.6% occurs in ablation season (May–October). August brings about maximum discharge of about 29.6% to the total streamflow followed by July of some 26.0%. During the study years, total discharge varies little from year to year, whereas the inter-annual variability in monthly discharge is prominent, particularly in the beginning and in the end of the melt season. Seasonal runoff variability shows great monthly variations in discharge with mean coefficient of variation ranging from 0.02 in January to 0.77 in April. The mean diurnal amplitudes are found to be 0.90, 1.86, 4.71, 4.92, 1.17 and 0.43 m³ s⁻¹ for May, June, July, August, September and October, respectively. In the melt season, the maximum runoff is observed during 1800–0200 hours and the minimum occurs during 0700–1000 hours. Delaying effects are prominent in discharge over the ablation period. The time-lag between meltwater generation and its appearance in the streamflow near the snout of the glacier varies between 4.00 and 10.00 h, and time to peak varies between 10.00 and 17.00 h over the entire melt season. The relationship between discharge and temperature on monthly scale (R ² = 0.77) is better than that on daily scale (R ² = 0.55).     

渭河上游典型小流域水文特征差异性分析

根据渭河流域两个典型小流域的实测水文和气象资料,分析了不同气候和下垫面条件的流域水文特征及其差异性.结果表明:清源河和牛谷河流域的年平均气温呈上升趋势,降水、径流、泥沙、降水径流系数均呈减少趋势;两个流域的降水、径流和泥沙历年变化不一致,1998-2013年清源河流域降水量相对牛谷河流域减少了8.6%,1993-2013年牛谷河的径流相对减少了21.4%,2000-2013年清源河的泥沙相对减少了24.0%;两个流域的面积、河长、海拔、植被覆盖率等流域特征值相对差在-29.4%~-4.5%之间,气温、降水等气候特征值相对差在-27.4%~16.7%之间,而径流特征值相差较大,相对差在-90.2%~-84.7%之间,泥沙特征差异性更大,相对差在292%~347%之间.对气候、下垫面和人类活动对水文要素的影响进行了研究,受人类活动的影响,清源河流域1996-2013年年径流减少11.6%,牛谷河流域1993-2006年年径流减少25.9%,2007-2013年再减少10.5%,研究人类活动的调水减沙效应,对流域综合治理、生态环境建设具有一定的指导意义.同时,充分利用不同小流域实测水文气象数据,分析水文气象要素的变化规律,可以为分布式水文模型研究和中小河流洪水预警预报提供重要依据.     

Rainfall-runoff modeling of ungauged Wadis in arid environments (case study Wadi Rabigh—Saudi Arabia)

Flash flood forecasting of catchment systems is one of the challenges especially in the arid ungauged basins. This study is attempted to estimate the relationship between rainfall and runoff and also to provide flash flood hazard warnings for ungauged basins based on the hydrological characteristics using geographic information system (GIS). Morphometric characteristics of drainage basins provide a means for describing the hydrological behavior of a basin. The study examined the morphometric parameters of Wadi Rabigh with emphasis on its implication for hydrologic processes through the integration analysis between morphometric parameters and GIS techniques. Data for this study were obtained from ASTER data for digital elevation model (DEM) with 30-m resolution, topographic map (1:50,000), and geological maps (1,250,000) which were subject to field confirmation. About 36 morphometric parameters were measured and calculated, and interlinked to produce nine effective parameters for the evaluation of the flash flood hazard degree of the study area. Based on nine effective morphometric parameters that directly influence on the hydrologic behavior of the Wadi through time of concentration, the flash flood hazard of the Rabigh basin and its subbasins was identified and classified into three groups (High, medium, and low hazard degree). The present work proved that the physiographic features of drainage basin contribute to the possibility of a flash flood hazard evaluation for any particular drainage area. The study provides details on the flash flood prone subbasins and the mitigation measures. This study also helps to plan rainwater harvesting and watershed management in the flash flood alert zones. Based on two historical data events of rainfall and the corresponding maximum flow rate, morphometric parameters and Stormwater Management and Design Aid software (SMADA 6), it could be to generate the hydrograph of Wadi Rabigh basin. As a result of the model applied to Wadi Rabigh basin, a rainfall event of a total of 22 mm with a duration of 5 h at the station nearby the study area, which has an exceedance probability of 50 % and return period around 2 years, produces a discharge volume of 15.2?×?10⁶ m³ at the delta, outlet of the basin, as 12.5 mm of the rainfall infiltrates (recharge).     

Saline waters and residual brines in the Shiraz-Sarvistan basin,Iran

Origin of saline waters in the Shiraz-Sarvistan area, Iran, is determined by a combined isotopic (¹⁸O and D) and chemical characterization. Four types are recognized: (a) fresh water of the anticlinal carbonatic aquifer; (b) fresh and brackish runoff in the synclinal basins; (c) salt springs originating through dissolution of rock salt by type (a) fresh water; and (d) residual brines formed in synclinal closed drainage basins, through evaporation of former water types and loss of the relatively less-soluble salts.     

1960—2010年中国主要流域径流量减小原因探讨分析

针对1960—2010年径流量显著减少的中国主要流域,包括松花江、辽河、海河、黄河和汉江等,选择其上游地区受人类直接取用水影响较少的山区小流域,分析径流变化及其原因.采用基于Budyko假设的流域水热耦合平衡方程,估计了流域年径流量变化的气候弹性系数和下垫面弹性系数,并对各流域径流变化进行了归因分析.结果表明,在气候较为湿润的地区,径流对气候和下垫面变化均不敏感;在气候较为干燥的地区,径流对气候和下垫面变化都更为敏感,且区域差异性明显.潜在蒸散发的变化对径流减少的影响微弱,降水减少和下垫面变化是径流减少的主导因素,其中人类活动导致的下垫面变化对径流减少的影响尤为显著.对比两个阶段的径流变化归因分析结果,近10年间流域下垫面变化对年径流量的影响程度较前20年有显著增加.通过分析近30年的归一化植被指数(NDVI)数据发现,植被覆盖改善是下垫面变化的重要原因,说明中国水土保持工程发挥了显著生态效益的同时也导致了流域径流减小.     

Impacts of surface mine valley fills on headwater floods in eastern Kentucky

The potential impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop removal/valley fill (MTR/VF) coal mining on downstream flooding in the coalfields of eastern Kentucky and adjacent states are a subject of public debate and scientific uncertainty. This study explored two aspects of this issue. First, hydrologic indices of relative runoff production and surface and subsurface flow detention were applied to conditions typical of headwater and low-order drainage basins in eastern Kentucky. Results show that there is a clear risk of increased flooding (greater runoff production and less surface flow detention) following MTR/VF operations, and suggest that, on balance, valley fills are more likely to increase rather than decrease flood potential. However, there is a wide range of outcomes, qualitatively and quantitatively. Flood risks can be increased or decreased, and the degree of either may vary markedly. The effects of MTR/VF mining on downstream peak flows are highly contingent on local pre- and post-mining conditions, and it would be unwise to apply generalizations to specific sites. Second, the occurrence of flash floods downstream of MTR/VF operations when nearby unmined areas did not flood or had less severe floods has frequently been explained (without supporting data) in terms of locally greater precipitation. The likelihood of such short-range variability of storm precipitation is evaluated by applying the state probability function to NEXRAD radar estimates of precipitation for two 2001 storms which produced flash floods in eastern Kentucky. The spatial structure of the storm precipitation indicates that at the scale of the analysis (pixel size of approximately 2 km) large local variations in storm precipitation are unlikely—that is, the probability of nearby hollows or low-order drainage basins receiving substantially different storm precipitation totals is low.     

Influence of storm magnitude and watershed size on runoff nonlinearity

The inherent nonlinear characteristics of the watershed runoff process related to storm magnitude and watershed size are discussed in detail in this study. The first type of nonlinearity is referred to rainfall-runoff dynamic process and the second type is with respect to a Power-law relation between peak discharge and upstream drainage area. The dynamic nonlinearity induced by storm magnitude was first demonstrated by inspecting rainfall-runoff records at three watersheds in Taiwan. Then the derivation of the watershed unit hydrograph (UH) using two linear hydrological models shows that the peak discharge and time to peak discharge that characterize the shape of UH vary event-to-event. Hence, the intention of deriving a unique and universal UH for all rainfall-runoff simulation cases is questionable. In contrast, the UHs by the other two adopted nonlinear hydrological models were responsive to rainfall intensity without relying on linear proportion principle, and are excellent in presenting dynamic nonlinearity. Based on the two-segment regression, the scaling nonlinearity between peak discharge and drainage area was investigated by analyzing the variation of Power-law exponent. The results demonstrate that the scaling nonlinearity is particularly significant for a watershed having larger area and subjecting to a small-size of storm. For three study watersheds, a large tributary that contributes relatively great drainage area or inflow is found to cause a transition break in scaling relationship and convert the scaling relationship from linearity to nonlinearity.     

Impact of rainfall intensity on the hydrological performance of erosion control geotextiles

The impact of erosion control geotextiles on the surface runoff from slopes is quite variable and depends strongly on site-specific conditions (soil characteristics, slope morphology, climate, etc.), as has been shown in several earlier studies. In addition, little is known about the proportion of runoff reduction that is caused by the geotextile and the proportion that is caused by soil characteristics. To shed more light on this issue, an experiment was carried out to test the impact of 500 g m^?2 jute nets (J500) and 400 g m^?2; 700 g m^?2 coir nets (C400, C700) on the surface runoff from simulated rainfall of four different intensities (I ₁ = 18.7; I ₂ = 27.2; I ₃ = 53.6; I ₄ = 90.5 mm h^?1). Data on runoff volume, peak discharge and time to peak discharge were collected from 40 simulated rainfall events. An impermeable “no-soil” subgrade was used to examine the impact of the geotextile on runoff without any influence of soil. All tested geotextiles significantly reduced runoff (volume, peak discharge) at all rainfall intensities, with the exception of C400 and C700 during simulated rainfall intensity I ₄. J500 seemed to have the most effective runoff reduction performance at all rainfall intensities. In general, as the rainfall intensity increased, the effectiveness of the geotextiles decreased. Interesting behaviour was observed for J500 under simulated rainfall intensity I ₄—the effectiveness of the geotextile increased with the duration of the rainfall.     

Hydrogeomorphic methods for the regional evaluation of flood hazards

The “upstream” approach to flood hazard evaluation involves the estimation of hydrologic response in small drainage basins. This study demonstrates the application of geomorphology to such studies in a region of unusually intense flooding in central Texas. One approach to flood hazard evaluation in this area is a parametric model relating flood hydrograph characteristics to quantitative geomorphic properties of the drainage basins. A preliminary model uses multiple regression techniques to predict potential peak flood discharge from basin magnitude, drainage density, and ruggedness number. After mapping small catchment networks (4 to 20 km²) from remote sensing imagery, input data for the model are generated by network digitization and analysis by a computer-assisted routine of watershed analysis. The study evaluated the network resolution capabilities of the following data formats: (1) large-scale (1:24,000) topographic maps, employing Strahler's “method of v's”, (2) low altitude black-and-white aerial photography (1:13,000 and 1:20,000 scales), (3) NASA-generated aerial infrared photography at scales ranging from 1:48,000 to 1:123,000, and (4) Skylab Earth Resources Experiment Package S-190A and S-190B sensors (1:750,000 and 1:500,000 respectively). Measured as the number of first order streams or as the total channel length identified in small drainage areas, resolution is strongly dependent on basin relief. High-density basins on the Edwards Plateau were poorly depicted on orbital imagery. However, the orbital network definition of low-relief basins on the inner Texas Coastal Plain is nearly as accurate as results from large-scale topographic maps. Geomorphic methods are also useful for flood hazard zonation in “downstream” flood plain areas. Studies of the Colorado River valley near Austin, Texas, easily distinguished infrequent (100- to 500-year recurrence interval), intermediate (10- to 30-year), and frequent (1- to 4-year) hazard zones. These mapping techniques are especially applicable to the rapid regional evaluation of flood hazards in areas for which there is a lack of time and money to generate more accurate engineering-hydraulic flood hazard maps.     

基于分布式水文模型的雅鲁藏布江径流水源组成解析

为开展河川径流的水源解析,构建过程描述和本构参数两方面均有较强物理性的分布式水文模型。以雅鲁藏布江为对象,利用水文分区曲线对降雨、融雪和融冰等不同水源主导的流量过程进行划分,以划分的流量过程线子集对相应水文过程参数进行分步率定,提高了水文模型参数的物理性,以此构建了雅鲁藏布江流域分布式水文模型及参数集,内部多个水文站点和流域雪水当量的验证表明模型具有良好的性能。基于模型解析了2001-2015年间雅鲁藏布江的径流水源组成,降雨、融雪、融冰水源对总径流量贡献的比例分别为66%、20%和14%。本文方法对高山寒区径流的水源解析有普遍意义,结果对理解气候变化下雅鲁藏布江径流变化趋势有参考价值。     

快速城市化地区多尺度水文观测试验与暴雨洪水响应机理分析

城市下垫面改变引起水文循环过程发生变异,导致目前已掌握的天然情况下的产汇流规律和机制难以解释城市化等新形势下的水文现象与过程,而面临需重新再认识的挑战。本文以长三角地区为典型,建立了不同城市化水平及空间规模的水文试验流域,探讨了快速城市化地区暴雨洪水响应规律和机制。结果表明：(1)不同量级降水事件下城镇用地土壤水响应程度(表层土壤水涨幅基本超过4%)总体高于其他土地利用类型,城市化地区下垫面的改变通过影响土壤水动态响应模式直接影响了地表产流过程,植被覆盖率较低的城镇用地和荒地土壤含水率呈现出陡涨陡落现象,而植被作用下的土地利用类型则表现出缓慢上升和缓慢消退的土壤水响应过程。(2)流域洪峰滞时和洪峰流量整体表现为随流域面积增加而呈幂律函数关系形式的增加。(3)总降水量与主要洪水特征(如洪峰流量、单位面积洪峰流量和径流深)基本呈显著相关(相关系数分别达0.49、0.41和0.78以上)。城市下垫面通过改变土壤水动态响应等产汇流特征而直接影响了洪水过程,未来长三角地区暴雨洪水在城市化和气候因素双重作用下呈现持续加剧的趋势。     

天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川融水径流水化学特征研究

2006年和2007年的整个消融期内,在天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川末端水文控制点逐日定时采集融水径流样品,对样品的主要可溶离子、pH、电导率EC、总溶解固体TDS和悬移质颗粒物SPM进行了分析. 结果表明：天山乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川融水径流离子类型为Ca²⁺-HCO₃^--SO₄^2-,呈弱碱性. 融水径流中TDS变化受日径流量调节显著,表现为消融初期和末期浓度较高,消融强烈时浓度较低;SPM以细颗粒物质为主,各粒度组分含量变化幅度较大,且质量浓度SSC年内变化与TDS呈相反的变化趋势. 融水径流中离子组成主要受岩石风化作用影响,离子摩尔比值和Piper图分析表明,控制冰川径流离子组成的主要过程是碳酸盐、黄铁矿和长石类矿物风化作用.     

Characteristics of the stream network composition of drainage basins in the Japanese Islands

This research is to analyze the composition of stream networks of drainage basins in Japan and to discuss the characteristics of drainage basins in the Japanese Islands. Study areas were selected for 180 drainage basins in the entire country. In this study, a topographic map with a scale of 1:50,000 was used and inserted into the valley line by V-shaped-contour methods in each drainage basin. The streams are ordered according to Strahler's system and measured by the stream number, stream length, stream slope, drainage area, and stream fall in each drainage basin. Horton's law of drainage network composition holds good in most drainage basins in Japan. The average values of the bifurcation ratio, stream length ratio, stream slope ratio, drainage area ratio, and stream fall ratio are 4.24, 1.91, 1.98, 4.52, and 1.04, respectively. The mean bifurcation ratio of drainage basins in Japan is 4.24, and this ratio is slightly greater than in other countries. It is also greater than the theoretical value of 4.0. This implies that the slope of drainage basins in Japan is so steep and the relief energy so large that excess streams have developed to a rather marked degree. The average stream fall ratio is 1.04 for drainage basins in Japan. It suggests that drainage basins are generally considered to be in a stage of maturity in stream channel development for the Japanese Islands. The stream fall ratio, however, is slightly greater than 1.0. Although, the stream beds are nearly in dynamic equilibrium in most cases, it tends to be in a slightly aggrading state.     

Morphometric Analysis and Hydrological Inference for Water Resource Management in Atrai-Sib River Basin,NW Bangladesh Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technique

Demand for irrigation water increases day by day along with meteorological vagaries and extension of irrigated area in the drought-prone Barind area of Bangladesh. This increasing stress on water resource is gradually making the area water scare. The study is aimed at studying the morphometric parameters of the Atrai-Sib river basin in the Barind area and on their relevance in water resource management based on satellite images and SRTM DEM. Computation and delineation of linear and areal aspects of the river basin and its morphometric components reveals that stream order ranges from first to eighth order showing dendritic drainage pattern. The basin represents homogeneity of soil texture; possibility of flash flood after heavy rainfall with low discharge of runoff; and is not largely affected by structural disturbance. Moderate drainage density of the river basin area indicates semipermeable soil lithology with moderate vegetation. Mean bifurcation ratio of the basin is calculated as 3.92 and elongation ratio 0.75, which indicate elongated shape of the river basin with low to moderate relief bounded in the east and west by ‘moderate to steep’ sloping land area. It reveals a flatter peak of runoff flow for longer duration and gravity flow of water. The gentle but undulating slope of the basin represents ‘excellent’ category for groundwater management as the site is favorable for infiltration due to maximum time of runoff water percolation. The east facing slopes of the basin show higher moisture content and higher vegetation than the west-facing slope. The land use pattern of the area shows that major part (95.29%) comes under the cultivated land which will support future river basin development and management. Results obtained from the study would be useful in categorization of river basins for future water resource development and management, and selection of suitable sites for water conservation structures such as check dam, percolation tank, artificial recharge of groundwater through MAR technique etc.