Site-specific pre-evaluation of bioremediation technologies for chloroethene degradation

Groundwater systems are important sources of water for drinking and irrigation purposes. Unfortunately, human activities have led to widespread groundwater contamination by chlorinated compounds such as tetrachloroethene (PCE). Chloroethenes are extremely harmful to humans and the environment due to their carcinogenic properties. Therefore, this study investigated the potential for bioremediating PCE-contaminated groundwater using laboratory-based biostimulation (BS) and biostimulation–bioaugmentation (BS-BA) assays. This was carried out on groundwater samples obtained from a PCE-contaminated site which had been unsuccessfully treated using chemical oxidation. BS resulted in complete dechlorination by week 21 compared to controls which had only 30 % PCE degradation. BS also led to a approximately threefold increase in 16S rRNA gene copies compared to the controls. However, the major bacterial dechlorinating group, Dehalococcoides (Dhc), was undetectable in PCE-contaminated groundwater. This suggested that dechlorination in BS samples was due to indigenous non-Dhc dechlorinators. Application of the BS-BA strategy with Dhc as the augmenting organism resulted in complete dechlorination by week 17 with approximately twofold to threefold increase in 16S rRNA and Dhc gene abundance. Live/dead cell counts (LDCC) showed 70–80 % viability in both treatments indicating active growth of potential dechlorinators. The LDCC was strongly correlated with cell copy numbers (r > 0.95) suggesting its potential use for low-cost monitoring of bioremediation. This study also shows the dechlorinating potential of indigenous non-Dhc groups can be successfully exploited for PCE decontamination while demonstrating the applicability of microbiological and chemical methodologies for preliminary site assessments prior to field-based studies.     

表面活性剂强化的DNAPLs污染含水层修复过程的数值模拟

根据含水层中水、表面活性剂和DNAPLs的运移规律和相互作用机理, 建立三维多相流数值模拟模型, 用以模拟表面活性剂强化的DNAPLs污染含水层的修复过程.将所建立的模型应用于一个被PCE污染的非均质含水层中, 并分别对污染物的污染过程以及修复过程进行模拟.研究结果表明: 数值模拟模型给出了表面活性剂强化含水层修复过程中非水相流体迁移转化的数学描述, 能够在短时间内、参数有限的条件下真实地刻画DNAPLs在含水层中的运移规律, 并能有效地模拟表面活性剂的修复过程.此外, 模拟结果显示, 由于表面活性剂对PCE的增溶增流作用, 有效地提高了PCE在水中的溶解性和迁移性, 其修复40 d的去除率达到63.5%, 与抽出处理法(去除率为31.8%)相比修复效果明显增强.      

Sorption of surfactants and personal care products in Indian soils

Sorption of three surfactants and personal care products in four types of commonly occurring Indian soils was extensively studied. The soils used in the study were red soil, clay soil, compost soil and sandy soil as classified by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The three surfactants used in the study were representative of cationic, non-ionic and anionic surfactant groups. The sorption of surfactants followed the descending order: sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) > trimethyl amine (TMA) > propylene glycol (PG). The maximum adsorption capacity (Q_max) was obtained in compost soil (28.6 mg/g for SDS; 9.4 mg/g for TMA and 4 mg/g for PG). The rate of adsorption was the maximum in compost soil followed by clay and red soils, and minimum for sandy soils. It is found that the Freundlich model fits the isotherm data better than the Langmuir model. Freundlich coefficient (K _f) increased as the organic content of soils increased. Desorption of target pollutants in tap water was 20–50% whereas acid desorbs 40–90% of target pollutants from soil matrix. It was also found that the adsorption and desorption were significantly affected by the presence of clay and organic matter. The results also indicate that surfactants and personal care products, especially TMA and PG, are highly mobile in sandy soil followed by red soil. Therefore, immobilization of target pollutants is most economical and effective in compost and clayey soils whereas for other type of soils the combination of physiochemical and biological process will be effective option for remediation.     

Application of APG and Calfax 16L-35 on surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic removal of phenanthrene from kaolinite

Removal characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from low-permeable soil using a surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic (EK) process were investigated. Phenanthrene and kaolinite were selected as a representative PAH and a model soil. A nonionic surfactant, alkyl polyglucosides (APG), and an anionic surfactant, Calfax 16L-35, were used to enhance the solubility of phenanthrene. The two surfactants showed similar solubilization capacities for phenanthrene, while only APG was affected by sorption. When surfactants were applied to EK process, the electrical potential gradient was lower than that of water. The electroosmotic flow (EOF) decreased as the concentration of surfactant increased. In the case of APG, the removal efficiency of phenanthrene increased with the surfactant concentration. The APG micelles containing phenanthrene easily migrated to the cathode reservoir by EOF. On the other hand, Calfax 16L-35 did not enhance the removal efficiency even at the highest concentration, because most of Calfax 16L-35 remained in soil, and only small amount existed in effluent. It was thought that, during electrokinetic process, Calfax 16L-35 was adsorbed onto soil and the migration of the surfactant from cathode to anode was superior to EOF due to anionic charges of Calfax 16L-35. A nonionic surfactant, APG, seems to be suitable for surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic remediation.     

Ultrasonically enhanced electrokinetic remediation for removal of Pb and phenanthrene in contaminated soils

Electrokinetic and ultrasonic remediation technologies were studied for the removal of heavy metal and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) in contaminated soils. The study emphasized the coupled effects of electrokinetic and ultrasonic techniques on migration as well as clean-up of contaminants in soils. The laboratory soil flushing tests combined electrokinetic and ultrasonic technique were conducted using specially designed and fabricated devices to determine the effect of both techniques. The electrokinetic technique was applied to remove mainly the heavy metal and the ultrasonic technique was applied to remove mainly organic substance in contaminated soil. A series of laboratory experiments involving electrokinetic and electrokinetic and ultrasonic flushing tests were carried out. Natural clay was used as a test specimen and Pb and phenanthrene were used as contaminants. An increase in out flow, permeability and contaminant removal rate was observed in electrokinetic and ultrasonic tests. Some practical implications of these results are discussed in terms of technical feasibility of in situ implementation of electrokinetic ultrasonic remediation technique.     

Modeling and assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls contamination in soil at a burial site of power capacitors

Numerous industrial or burial sites contaminated by persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides were discovered in China recently. Due to improper choice of technology, many remediation cases had cost too much; however, failed to attain expected goals. In this study, the distribution and transport of PCBs at a burial site were investigated using tested PCBs concentration in order to support the choice of remediation technology and estimate the remediation results. Site characterization was carried out in order to investigate the hydrogeological condition and PCBs pollution nearby the capacitor burial site located in Shanxi, China. Results of PCBs measurement indicated that the proportion of contaminated soil with concentration above 500 mg/kg is 7.8 % and the value for soil with concentration between 50 and 500 mg/kg is 18.0 %. Considering adsorption and biodegradation, the two-dimensional PCBs transport model was established based on advection–dispersion equation. The model calibration showed a good agreement between measured and computed values, indicating the feasibility of this model used for predicting the transport and disappearance of PCBs in soil. Results of 100 years’ simulation demonstrated the slow migration and biodegradation of PCBs. Simulations were conducted for before and after remediation scenarios. Comparison of the results indicates that the remediation alternatives of excavation–incineration and thermal desorption have successfully removed most of the organics and thus reduced the environmental risk to a low level.     

Characterization and treatability of a contaminated soil from an oil exploration zone

A crude contaminated soil, arising from an oil production zone in Tabasco, Mexico was studied. A sample of about 40 kg was dried and screened through meshes 10–100. Total petroleum hydrocarbons and 6 metals (Cd, Cu, Cr, Ni, V and Zn) were determined to the different portions. For soil which passed mesh 10, six non-ionic, three anionic and one zwitterionic surfactant solutions (0.5%) were employed to wash the soil. Additional tests using surfactant salt mixtures and surfactants mixtures were carried out. Once the best soil washing conditions were identified, these experimental conditions were applied for washing the rest of the soil portions obtained (meshes 4, 6, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100). Total petroleum hydrocarbons values were in the range of 51, 550 to 192, 130 mg/kg. Cd was not found in any of the soils portions, and the rest of the metals were found at different concentrations, for every soil mesh. Treatability tests applied to the soils indicated that it is possible to get removals between 9.1 to 20.5%. For the case of a sodium dodecyl sulphate 1% solution, total petroleum hydrocarbons removal was as high as 35.4%. Combinations of sodium docecyl sulphate and salts, gave removal rates up to 49.5%. Total petroleum hydrocarbons concentrations for the whole soil were about 150,600 mg/kg. The higher the particle size, the lower the washing removal rate. The combined effect of particle size and total petroleum hydrocarbons concentration, determines the total petroleum hydrocarbons removal efficiencies. These facts are very important for designing an appropriate soil washing remediation process.     

Effect of electrode configuration on pH distribution and heavy metal ions migration during soil electrokinetic remediation

Generation, migration, and distribution of H⁺ and OH^? have remarkable influence on heavy metal removal from soil during electrokinetic remediation. A series of experiments were carried out to investigate the effects of electrode configuration and voltage on pH distribution and heavy metal migration, based on the preliminary exploratory experiments. In the first phase, three soil samples were used to observe the effect of electrode configuration on pH distribution. Then, three more soil samples were used to explore the effect of voltage on ion migration. Finally, three other soil samples were used to explore the effect of electrode configuration (i.e. angle CAC) on pH distribution and heavy metal migration. The results showed that the soil was divided into acid, base, and pH-jump zones and that heavy metals migrated under low pH conditions and were deposited at the pH-jump zone. Heavy metal distribution was fairly consistent with pH distribution. Under the optimal condition of $ \angle $ CAC 60º and voltage 2.33 V/cm, 4.22 mg copper and 0.51 mg zinc migrated from acid zone and deposited in pH-jump zone with 6.44 kJ energy consumption.     

Spatial and seasonal distributions of soil phosphorus in a typical seasonal flooding wetland of the Yellow River Delta,China

Soil samples from 0 to 100 cm depth were collected in four sampling sites (Sites A, B, C and D) along a 250-m length of sampling zone from the Yellow River channel to a tidal creek in a seasonal flooding wetland of the Yellow River Delta of China in fall of 2007 and spring of 2008 to investigate spatial and seasonal distribution patterns of total phosphorous (TP) and available phosphorus (AP) and their influencing factors. Our results showed that TP contents in spring and AP contents in both seasons in surface soils increased with increasing distances away from the Yellow River channel. TP contents in surface soils (0–10 cm) followed the order Site A (698.6 mg/kg) > Site B (688.0 mg/kg) > Site C (638.8 mg/kg) > Site D (599.2 mg/kg) in fall, while Site C (699.6 mg/kg) > Site D (651.7 mg/kg) > Site B (593.6 mg/kg) > Site A (577.5 mg/kg) in spring. Generally, lower TP content (630.6 mg/kg) and higher AP level (6.2 mg/kg) in surface soils were observed in spring compared to fall (656.2 mg/kg for TP and 5.2 mg/kg for AP). Both TP and AP exhibited similar profile distribution patterns and decreased with depth along soil profiles with one or two accumulation peaks at the depth of 40–80 cm. Although the mean TP content in soil profiles was slightly higher in spring (635.7 mg/kg) than that in fall (628.0 mg/kg), the mean TP stock was obviously lower in spring (959.9 g/m²) with an obvious accumulation at the 60–80 cm soil depth compared to fall (1124.6 g/m²). Topsoil concentration factors also indicated that TP and AP had shallower distribution in soil profiles. Correlation analysis showed that AP had significant and positive correlation with these soil properties such as soil organic matter, salinity, total nitrogen and Al (p < 0.01), but TP was just significantly correlated with TN and Al (p < 0.05).     

Nanoscale zero-valent iron flakes for groundwater treatment

Even today the remediation of organic contaminant source zones poses significant technical and economic challenges. Nanoscale zero-valent iron (NZVI) injections have proved to be a promising approach especially for source zone treatment. We present the development and the characterization of a new kind of NZVI with several advantages on the basis of laboratory experiments, model simulations and a field test. The developed NZVI particles are manufactured by milling, consist of 85 % Fe(0) and exhibit a flake-like shape with a thickness of <100 nm. The mass normalized perchloroethylene (PCE) dechlorination rate constant was 4.1 × 10^?3 L/g h compared to 4.0 × 10^?4 L/g h for a commercially available reference product. A transport distance of at least 190 cm in quartz sand with a grain size of 0.2–0.8 mm and Fe(0) concentrations between 6 and 160 g/kg (sand) were achieved without significant indications of clogging. The particles showed only a low acute toxicity and had no longterm inhibitory effects on dechlorinating microorganisms. During a field test 280 kg of the iron flakes was injected to a depth of 10–12 m into quaternary sand layers with hydraulic conductivities ranging between 10^?4 and 10^?5 m/s. Fe(0) concentrations of 1 g/kg (sand) or more [up to 100 g/kg (sand)] were achieved in 80 % of the targeted area. The iron flakes have so far remained reactive for more than 1 year and caused a PCE concentration decrease from 20.000–30.000 to 100–200 µg/L. Integration of particle transport processes into the OpenGeoSys model code proved suitable for site-specific 3D prediction and optimization of iron flake injections.     

Reducing leachable petroleum hydrocarbon concentration in weathered fuel oil contaminated soil by chemical oxidation with hydrogen peroxide

Number 6 fuel oil is one of the most used energy sources for electricity generation. However, leaks can contaminate soil and also groundwater due to leaching. At old sites, the oil may have low toxicity but still contaminate groundwater with foul-tasting compounds even at low concentrations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of applying H₂O₂ to reduce the leaching potential of a fuel oil contaminated soil. A silt-loam soil was collected from a contaminated thermal-electric plant with a hydrocarbon concentration of 3.2% in soil producing 4.3 mg/l in leachate. Hydrogen peroxide was applied (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.6, 1.2% dry weight basis), and petroleum hydrocarbons were measured in soil and leachate pre- and post-treatment (72 h). At first, the soil and leachate concentrations diminished linearly (24.4 and 27.3% in soil and leachate, respectively). This was followed by a phase in which the concentration in leachate diminished greatly (75.8%) although the concentration in soil was reduced only moderately (15.1%). Overall, hydrocarbons in leachates were reduced 82.4% even though concentrations in soil were only reduced 35.8%. Correlation analysis showed that at only 1.0% w/w H₂O₂ a concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons in leachate safe for human consumption (≤ 1 mg/l) could be obtained even with a final hydrocarbon concentration in soil > 2%. Thus, this study presents an alternative strategy for remediation of fuel oil contaminated soils in urban environments that protects water sources by focusing on contamination in leachates, without spending extra financial resources to reduce the hydrocarbon concentration in low-toxicity soil.     

Carcinogenic risk evaluation for human health risk assessment from soils contaminated with heavy metals

Human activities have progressively increased in recent years. Consequently, significant environment deterioration resulted. Soils have a particularly varied vulnerability to heavy metal pollution, especially in the vicinity of industrial areas. Heavy metal contamination of soil may induce risks and hazards to humans and the ecosystem, while toxic metals in soil can severely inhibit the biodegradation of organic contaminants. This paper is focused on human health risk assessment from extremely contaminated soil with heavy metals, mainly with carcinogenic elements. The study refers to an agricultural area in the vicinity of an old metallurgical processing industrial facility. The contaminants evaluated in the present paper are beryllium (Be), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb). Contamination level is pointed out through laboratory analysis results of soil samples taken from 0–0.2 m, 0.2–0.4 m soil layers and up to 2.1 m soil depth. Some heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Cr and Pb) exceed the intervention thresholds for sensitive areas, as they are stipulated in the national regulation in Romania. The identified average concentration levels of Cd, Cr^VI and Pb in the first layer of the investigated land are 23.83, 7.71 and 704.22 mg/kg_d.w, respectively. The results show that the potential risk of human health is relevant (higher than the acceptable one after World Health Organization) and a possible solution for the remediation should become a major concern for the investigated area.     

Comparison of the effectiveness of different binders in solidification/stabilization of a contaminated soil

In the current research, solidification/stabilization (S/S) treatment of the contaminated soil using hydraulic binders and additives was used to (1) reduce the mobility of organic and inorganic contaminants and (2) compare the ability of various binders in fixing contaminants. The samples were collected from Franco-Tunisian Petroleum Company, located in Sidi Litayem, Sfax (Southern Tunisia). Leaching tests were performed on contaminated soil, containing metallic elements, and hydrocarbons. Calcium aluminate cement (CAC), ordinary Portland cement (OPC), and ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), additives especially the bentonite and water, were used for S/S treatment. The obtained standard specimens were subjected for treating after treatment the leachability of pollutants, compressive strength (CS), and XRD analysis. The results of analysis conducted on contaminated soils showed that concentrations of metallic elements were in the range of 9.08–427 mg/kg and 15,520 mg/kg of organic compound. Next, 10% of the used binder improved the immobilization of pollutants and gave a satisfactory CS exceeding 1 MPa. Thus, the CAC is more effective in reducing the leachability of metal contaminants than OPC + GGBFS and produces much higher strength, which was of the order of 2.41 MPa. The mechanical characterization was confirmed by XRD analysis. The lowest values of organic compounds are presented in mixtures treated by 10% of used binder, indicating the effectiveness of those with the presence of 10% of bentonite. This work shows that 10% (OPC + GGBFS) +?10% bentonite improved the immobilization of metallic elements and hydrocarbons, thus proving its efficiency due to its low cost.     

Mobility of cadmium,chromium, and nickel through the profile of a calcisol treated with sewage sludge in the southeast of Spain

To study the mobility of polluting agents through the soil, the authors have designed an experiment that attempts to reproduce the behavior of heavy metals in the soil as a part of the non-saturated zone. This work was based on a controlled experiment using soil columns. A calcareous soil was amended with 30,000, 90,000 and 180,000 kg sludge/ha. Chromium, cadmium, and nickel were analyzed in soil samples at intervals of 15 cm depth. Leachates were collected at the bottom of the columns and the metals were analyzed. No important displacements of polluting metals were found in this soil.     

Using saline tracers to evaluate preferential recharge in fractured rocks,Floyd County,Virginia, USA

Potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium bromide (KBr) tracers were used to explore the role of geologic structure on groundwater recharge and flow at the Fractured Rock Research Site in Floyd County, Virginia, USA. Tracer migration was monitored through soil, saprolite, and fractured crystalline bedrock for a period of 3 months with chemical, physical, and geophysical techniques. The tracers were applied at specific locations on the ground surface to directly test flow pathways in a shallow saprolite and deep fractured-rock aquifer. Tracer monitoring was accomplished with differential electrical resistivity, chemical sampling, and physical monitoring of water levels and spring discharge. KCl, applied at a concentration of 10,000 mg/L, traveled 160 m downgradient through the thrust fault aquifer to a spring outlet in 24 days. KBr, applied at a concentration of 5,000 mg/L, traveled 90 m downgradient through the saprolite aquifer in 19 days. Tracer breakthrough curves indicate diffuse flow through the saprolite aquifer and fracture flow through the crystalline thrust fault aquifer. Monitoring saline tracer migration through soil, saprolite, and fractured rock provided data on groundwater recharge that would not have been available using other traditional hydrologic methods. Travel times and flowpaths observed during this study support preferential groundwater recharge controlled by geologic structure.     

Arsenic in soil and vegetation of a contaminated area

Plant and soil samples were collected from one uncontaminated and four contaminated sites (in the Dashkasan mining area western Iran). Total and water-soluble arsenic in the soil ranged from 7 to 795 and from 0.007 to 2.32 mg/kg, respectively. The highest arsenic concentration in soil was found at the ore dressing area (up to 1,180 mg/kg) and lowest at an uncontaminated area (up to 11 mg/kg). A total of 49 plant species belonging to 15 families were collected from four sampling sites. A significant positive correlation was detected between the concentrations of arsenic in plant dry matter and those in soils. The highest arsenic concentrations were found in Hyoscyamus kurdicus Bornm. (up to 205 mg/kg) and Helichrysum oligocephalum DC. (up to 162 mg/kg). These two accumulator species could have potential for soil clean-up by phytoextraction. The data have been compared with those for the Zarshuran mining area (north-western Iran) obtained in a former study.     

Comparison on the phytoextraction efficiency of Bidens pilosa at heavy metal contaminated site in natural and electrokinetic conditions

The plant samples of Bidens pilosa were collected from a coal gangue vacant site and its surrounding area, located in central China, to study the remediation effect of the plant species on heavy metal(HM) contamination in both natural and electrokinetic(EK) conditions. The analytical results showed that the effect of phytoextraction and bioconcentration on the heavy metals in the sample of the EK group is more significant than those in the other control group. Compared with the results of natural condition, under the EK condition the concentrations of cadmium(Cd), lead(Pb), copper(Cu) and zinc(Zn) in the stems and leaves of the Bidens pilosa increased to 0.40 mg/kg, 4.23 mg/kg, 7.27 mg/kg, 830.24 mg/kg, respectively,with their increments of 292%, 1 731%, 141%, 2 076%. For root samples, the Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn concentrations increased to 0.52 mg/kg, 4.36 mg/kg, 10.87 mg/kg, and 98.12 mg/kg and the increase rates were 1 034%, 140%, 29%, and 181%, respectively. The phytoextraction efficiency of the Bidens pilosa was significantly higher than that of control group. The removal efficiency of Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn in soil increased to 26%, 72%, 27%, and 79% with the EK applied. In addition, the mechanism of HM migration,extraction and enrichment in Bidens pilosa under the EK condition was discussed.     

Assessment of trace element contamination in soils around Chinnaeru River Basin, Nalgonda District, India

Concentrations of trace elements such as As, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, V, Y, Zn and Zr were studied in soils to understand metal contamination due to agriculture and geogenic activities in Chinnaeru River Basin, Nalgonda District, India. This area is affected by the geogenic fluoride contamination. The contamination of the soils was assessed on the basis of geoaccumulation index, enrichment factor (EF), contamination factor and degree of contamination. Forty-four soil samples were collected from the agricultural field from the study area from top 10–50 cm layer of soil. Soil samples were analyzed for trace elements using X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Data revealed that soils in the study area are significantly contaminated, showing high level of toxic elements than normal distribution. The ranges of concentration of Ba (370–1,710 mg/kg), Cr (8.7–543 mg/kg), Cu (7.7–96.6 mg/kg), Ni (5.4–168 mg/kg), Rb (29.6–223 mg/kg), Sr (134–438 mg/kg), Zr (141.2–8,232 mg/kg) and Zn (29–478 mg/kg). The concentration of other elements was similar to the levels in the earth’s crust or pointed to metal depletion in the soil (EF < 1). The high EFs for some trace elements obtained in soil samples show that there is a considerable heavy metal pollution, which could be due to excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides used for agricultural or may be due to natural geogenic processes in the area. Comparative study has been made with other soil-polluted heavy metal areas and its mobility in soil and groundwater has been discussed. A contamination site poses significant environmental hazards for terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They are important sources of pollution and may result in ecotoxicological effects on terrestrial, groundwater and aquatic ecosystems.     

Interactive effect of cadmium and zinc on chromium uptake in spinach grown in Vertisol of Central India

A pot culture experiment was conducted to study impact and interaction of multi-metals on growth, yield and metals uptake by spinach (variety All Green). Three levels of each chromium (0, 50 and 100 mg/kg), cadmium (0, 1 and 2 mg/kg) and zinc (0, 10 and 20 mg/kg) in combinations (total treatments 3 × 3 × 3 = 27) were applied in a Vertisol (5 kg). The results showed that increasing the concentration of chromium, cadmium and zinc in soil enhanced the respective metal concentrations in spinach root and shoot. When cadmium at 2 mg/kg along with chromium at 100 mg/kg soil was applied, chromium concentration and uptake were decreased in root and shoot. Meanwhile, zinc application had no significant effect on chromium uptake and concentration in spinach biomass. From the results, it was concluded that cadmium at higher dose had an antagonistic effect over chromium. On the other hand, in chromium, cadmium and zinc combinations particularly at their higher levels, a competition among each other was found. Therefore, the findings could be used as guidelines for controlling and management of heavy metals pollution in farmland.     

Use of geostatistical models in DNAPL source zone architecture and dissolution profiles assessment in spatially variable aquifer

Following the accidental subsurface release of dense nonaqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), spatial variability of physical and chemical soil/contaminant properties can exert a controlling influence on infiltration pathways and organic entrapment. DNAPL spreading, fingering, and pooling typically result in source zones characterized by irregular contaminated regions with complex boundaries. Spatial variability in aquifer properties also influences subsequent DNAPL dissolution and aqueous transport dynamics. An increasing number of studies have investigated the effects of subsurface heterogeneity on the fate of DNAPL; however, previous work was limited to the examination of the behavior of single-component DNAPL in systems with simple and well-defined aqueous and solid surface chemistry. From a DNAPL remediation point of view, such an idealized assumption will bring a large discrepancy between the designs based on the model simulation and the reality. The research undertaken in this study seeks to stochastically explore the influence of spatially variable porous media on DNAPL entrapment and dissolution profiles in the saturated groundwater aquifer. A 3D, multicomponent, multiphase, compositional model, UTCHEM, was used to simulate natural gradient water flooding processes in spatially variable soils. Porosity was assumed to be uniform or simulated using sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS) and sequential indicator simulation (SIS). Soil permeability was treated as a spatially random variable and modeled independently of porosity, and a geostatistical method was used to generate random distributions of soil permeability using SGS and SIS (derived from measured grain size distribution curves). Equally possible 3D ensembles of aquifer realizations with spatially variable permeability accounting of physical heterogeneity could be generated. Tetrachloroethene (PCE) was selected as a DNAPL representative as it was frequently discovered at many contaminated groundwater sites worldwide, including Thailand. The randomly generated permeability fields were incorporated into UTCHEM to simulate DNAPL source zone architecture under 96-L hypothetical PCE spill in heterogeneous media and stochastic analysis was conducted based on the simulated results. Simulations revealed considerable variations in the predicted PCE source zone architecture with a similar degree of heterogeneity, and complex initial PCE source zone distribution profoundly affected PCE recovery time in heterogeneous media when subject to natural gradient water flush. The necessary time to lower PCE concentrations below Thai groundwater quality standard ranged from 39 years to more than 55 years, suggesting that spatial variability of subsurface formation significantly affected the dissolution behavior of entrapped PCE. The temporal distributions of PCE saturation were significantly altered owing to natural gradient water flush. Therefore, soil heterogeneity is a critical factor to design strategies for characterization and remediation of DNAPL contaminated sites. The systematic and comprehensive design algorithm developed and described herein perhaps serves as a template for application at other DNAPL sites in Thailand.