Internal constitution and evolution of the moon

The composition, structure and evolution of the moon's interior are narrowly constrained by a large assortment of physical and chemical data. Models of the thermal evolution of the moon that fit the chronology of igneous activity on the lunar surface, the stress history of the lunar lithosphere implied by the presence of mascons, and the surface concentrations of radioactive elements, involve extensive differentiation early in lunar history. This differentiation may be the result of rapid accretion and large-scale melting or of primary chemical layering during accretion; differences in present-day temperatures for these two possibilities are significant only in the inner 1000 km of the moon and may not be resolvable. If the Apollo 15 heat-flow result is representative of the moon, the average uranium concentration in the moon is 0.05–0.08 p.p.m.Density models for the moon, including the effects of temperature and pressure, can be made to satisfy the mass and moment of inertia of the moon and the presence of a low-density crust inferred from seismic refraction studies only if the lunar mantle is chemically or mineralogically inhomogeneous. The upper mantle must exceed the density of the lower mantle at similar conditions by at least 5%. The average mantle density is that of a pyroxenite or olivine pyroxenite, though the density of the upper mantle may exceed 3.5 g/cm³. The density of the lower mantle is less than that of the combined crust and upper mantle at similar temperature and pressure, thus reinforcing arguments for early moon-wide differentiation of both major and minor elements. The suggested density inversion is gravitationally unstable and implies stresses in the mantle 2–5 times those associated with the lunar gravitational field, a difficulty that can be explained or avoided by: (1) adopting lower values for the moment of inertia and/or crustal thickness, or (2) postulating that the strength of the lower mantle increases with depth or with time, either of which is possible for certain combinations of composition and thermal evolution.A small iron-rich core in the moon cannot be excluded by the moon's mass and moment of inertia. If such a core were molten at the time lunar surface rocks acquired remanent magnetization, then thermal-history models with initially cold interiors strongly depleted in radioactive heat sources as a primary accretional feature must be excluded. Further, the presence of ～||pre|40 K in a FeFeS core could significantly alter the thermal evolution and estimated present-day temperatures of the deep lunar interior.     

Oxygen isotope measurements of phosphate from fish teeth and bones

In situ measurements of lunar surface brightness temperatures made as a part of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package at the Apollo 15 Hadley Rille landing site are reported. Data derived from 5 thermocouples of the Heat Flow Experiment, which are lying on or just above the surface, are used to examine the thermal properties of the upper 15 cm of the lunar regolith using eclipse and nighttime cool-down temperatures. Application of finite-difference techniques in modeling the lunar soil shows the thermocouple data are best fit by a model consisting of a low-density and low-thermal conductivity surface layer approximately 2 cm thick overlying a region increasing in conductivity and density with depth. Conductivities on the order of 1 × 10^?5 W/cm-°K are postulated for the upper layer, with conductivity increasing to the order of 1 × 10^?4 W/cm-°K at depths exceeding 20 cm. An increase in mean temperature with depth indicates that the ratio of radiative to conductive transfer at 350°K is 2.7 for at least the upper few centimeters of lunar soil; this value is nearly twice that measured for returned lunar fines. The thermal properties model deduced from Apollo 15 surface temperatures is consistent with earth-based microwave observations if electrical properties measured on returned lunar fines are assumed.     

A Monte Carlo model for the exposure history of lunar dust grains in the ancient solar wind

The theoretical motion of individual dust grains in the lunar regolith is analyzed by using a Monte Carlo statistical code where the variables are the mass and speed distribution of meteorites at the lunar surface and the geometrical shape of impact craters. From these computations the detailed irradiation history of the grains in the ancient solar wind is traced back, over a period of 4 billion years, as a function of the grain size. Then by combining this irradiation scheme with the result of solar wind simulation experiments, the time and depth dependent accumulation of solar wind effects in the theoretical grains (solar wind maturation) is inferred. Finally, the validity of these predictions is tentatively checked by discussing a variety of physical and chemical solar wind effects which are registered in the surface layers of lunar dust grains. Therefore these studies give a tentative scenario for the “maturation” of the lunar regolith with respect to solar wind effects, but they also reveal useful guidelines to deduce meaningful information from such effects. In particular, they suggest a “lunar skin” sampling technique for extracting dust grains in lunar core tubes which could help in deciphering the past activity of the ancient solar wind over a time scale of several billion years.     

Possible physical processes causing transient lunar events

Transient lunar events appear to involve two main effects: the obscuration of surface detail, and changes in brightness and/or colour which could be caused either by modification of the way in which incident sunlight is scattered, or by the emission of additional light. We find it difficult to explain the obscurations in any other way than to assume that clouds of fine surface dust are raised either by bursts of gas emission from surface fissures, or by impacts; the possible duration and density of such clouds are considered.Modification of the albedo of a dust surface by agitation has been demonstrated in laboratory experiments: under certain conditions the albedo may increase, but the change appears to be permanent at atmospheric pressure; it may be reversible under lunar vacuum conditions. The most likely lunar process of this type again seems to be the agitation of surface dust by gas emitted from fissures; also, the scattering of sunlight by dust clouds could, under some conditions, result in weak colour effects. Processes that could result in the emission of light include incandescence, luminescence or thermoluminescence, glow discharge in gas clouds (possibly enhanced by the presence of charged dust grains), and lightning-type discharge in dust clouds. We conclude that the lightning-type discharge is the process most likely to be bright enough to be visible from earth, against the sunlit moon.We therefore conclude that transient lunar events of the different types that have been reported could be explained by various processes that may occur in gas-borne dust clouds.     

Convection and lunar thermal history

The effect of solid convection on the thermal evolution of the Moon is explored for a variety of viscosities, radioactive differentiation efficiencies and initial temperature profiles. Convective heat flux in the models is calculated using an empirical relation derived from the results of laboratory experiments and numerical solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations. The method retains the spherically symmetric approximation and, therefore, greatly facilitates numerical calculations.Results show that even though solid convection may determine the thermal state of the lunar interior, it does not necessarily produce a quasi-steady thermal balance between heat sources and surface loss. An imbalance persists, due to the cooling and growth of the nonconvecting lithosphere. The state of the lithosphere is sensitive to the efficiency of heat source redistribution, while that of the convecting interior depends primarily on rheology. Convecting models have viscosities of 10²¹–10²² cm²s^?1 in their interiors; the central temperature must be above 1100°C. Convection occurring within the first billion years after formation could have led to mare flooding by magma produced in hot zones of convection cells. However, it cannot be shown from model calculations alone that solid convection must have dominated lunar thermal history.     

Remarks on the thermal conductivity and heat flow density of the Indian Craton

The virtual or effective thermal conductivity (ETC) of the Indian subcontinental crust model is calculated from geochemical/geothermal data on the mean radiogenic heat production and on the real thermal conductivity (TC) of crystalline rocks of India. This ETC, amounting to about 3.45 W/m·K, is 1.4 time greater than the mean real TC value (about 2.5 W/m·K). This is in good agreement with the empirical relation between the surface heat flow density and the Curie depth for the Indian Craton.     

The utilization of the lunar eclipse effect for characterization of microparticles in high atmosphere

Summary The irradiation of the Moon in the shadow of the Earth during the eclipse, caused by refraction in the atmosphere, depends prevailingly on the optical properties of the middle and high atmosphere. The paper points out the feasibility of utilization of the optical thicknesses of the atmosphere measured in the Earth's shadow for the characterization of atmospheric microparticles. The results of observations of the lunar eclipse of August, 17th, 1989 are discussed in more detail, the vertical profile of particle concentration and parameter n in Junge's distribution have been determined. Based on processing this and another 25 lunar eclipses, a geographical map of the height of the upper limit of the high dust layer could finally be constructed.On leave from Astronomical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences     

On the development of the crater population on the moon with time under meteoroid and solar wind bombardment

In this paper a theory is evaluated to describe the development of the lunar crater population with time under the bombardment by meteoroids and solar wind. Starting from a general mass distribution law a differential equation has been established and solved separately for meteoroid impact and solar wind bombardment. The theory permits the calculation of absolute formation ages of the lunar surface as well as the particle flux, supposing the crater distributions on the moon have been measured. As an important result it includes a D⁻² equilibrium crater distribution law (D =crater diameter), actually measured in Mare Tranquillitatis and Oceanus Procellarum. Additionally, the exponential decrease of particle flux with time is confirmed.     

月球内部构造研究综述

回顾了月震观测的历史,归纳出月震的特点,并将月震分成热震、浅震和深震三种类型加以.分析总结出一个比较完整的月球内部构造模型.在此基础上,详细介绍了如何根据月震观测资料确定月壳和月幔.本文还对月核存在的可能性加以阐述,指出由于月球1100 km以下数据的缺乏,到目前为止没有确切的证明月核存在的证据.最后,紧密关注月球构造研究的最新进展,给出了月核可能存在的形式：半径为352 km（成分为纯Fe）或者374 km（成分为Fe-FeS晶体）.     

Simulations of lunar equatorial regolith temperature profile based on measurements of Diviner on Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter

Lunar equatorial regolith temperature profiles were simulated using the half-limited solid heat conduction model. Based on the infrared data measured using the Diviner radiometer on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter launched by the United Sates in June 2009, three factors influencing temperature profiles were analyzed. The infrared brightness temperature data from Diviner channel 7 were used to retrieve surface temperature. In simulating regolith temperature profiles, the retrieved temperature, rather than temperatures calculated from solar radiance at the lunar surface, were used as the input for surface temperature in solving the heat-conductive equation. The results showed that the bottom-layer temperature at depths of 6 m approached almost 246 K after 10000 iterations. The temperature was different to the temperature of 250 K at the same depth encountered in simulations using solar radiance. Simulations from both methods of surface temperatures over a lunar day gave similar variations. At lunar night, the temperature difference between the two was about 2 K; the main differences occurred when the solar elevation angle was very low when surface temperatures are largely affected by terrain topography. With no certainty in lunar temperature profiles at present, the advantage of the retrieval method using infrared sensor data as input to the boundary conditions in solving the lunar heat conduction equation is that simulations of surface temperature variations are more accurate. This is especially true in areas with large variations in terrain topography, where surface temperatures vary greatly because of shading from the sunlight.     

SmNd constraints on early lunar differentiation and the evolution of KREEP

The Sm-Nd systematics of lunar KREEP basalt 15386 reflects two chronologically distinct events in the development of the incompatible element-rich materials of the moon. The measured Sm-Nd mineral isochron of 15386 indicates an age of 3.85 ± 0.08 AE which is consistent with the reported Rb-Sr and³⁹Ar-⁴⁰Ar ages of many other KREEP-rich samples. This age is interpreted as the time at which 15386 crystallized from a liquid on or near the lunar surface. The frequent occurrence of this age for KREEP-dominated samples, as well as the restricted location of KREEP near major lunar near-side impact basins, suggests that the eruption of these incompatible element-rich liquids was related to deep impact events during the postulated final bombardment phase of the surface of the moon. However, the lower than chrondritic initial¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of 15386 and the essentially identical Sm-Nd evolution of other KREEP-rich samples require that the light REE enrichment which characterizes KREEP was established considerably before 3.85 AE. Within the limits imposed by model assumptions in the various radiometric systems, it is concluded that the extremely narrow spread of Sm-Nd model ages for these samples around 4.36 AE, and the compatibility of this age with that indicated by the U-Pb and Rb-Sr systems, indicate that the source of later KREEP volcanism was produced in the closing stages of an early global scale lunar differentiation episode.     

新53阶次月球重力场及其精细结构

月球重力场是了解月球内部结构的重要信息之一.日本SELENE卫星首次获得月球背面卫星轨道的直接探测数据并建立了更高精度的全月球重力场模型.本文根据日本公布的采样间隔为60 s、轨道高度为100 km的SELENE卫星观测资料并利用作者移植的GEODYN-II微机版本软件求解出新53阶次月球球谐场模型LG-53.经过测试表明移植后的微机版本比原始工作站版本的计算效率提高了5到10倍.理论上表明60 s采样间隔、100 km高度的轨道数据能够计算出60阶次的月球球谐系数模型,但是作者在实际计算过程中发现:在接近理论阶次(60阶次)的一系列模型中出现了平行于经线的高频噪声,且模型越接近理论阶次其噪声越高.因此本文将53阶次月球球谐系数模型LG-53作为最后的解算结果并建立各种月球重力异常场,并将其与美国GLGM-2 (70阶次)模型和利用嫦娥1号数据解算出的CEGM-01(50阶次)模型对比,发现新53阶次重力场模型LG-53在高纬度和月球背面都显示出了更高分辨率的异常特征;与美国LP165P(165阶次)模型对比发现LG-53所建立的自由空气重力异常在月球背面不存在LP165P中所出现的高频噪声.与日本90阶次SGM90d模型对比后发现新模型的精度较日本模型还有所差距.主要是由于两者参与计算的数据采样率不同所致.53阶次的模型LG-53能够反映100 km尺度的重力异常,而日本90阶次模型则可以反映60 km尺度的异常.利用新53阶次模型计算的自由空气重力异常图并结合月球地形图探讨了四种类型的Mascon重力异常特征及其地形特征.     

Critical velocity phenomena and the LTP

When the relative velocity between magnetized plasma and neutral gas exceeds a critical value, the gas-plasma interaction is dominated by collective phenomena which rapidly excite and ionize the neutrals. The interaction of the solar wind with a large cloud (10²⁴ – 10²⁸ neutrals) vented from the moon should be of this type. Line radiation from such an interaction can yield an apparent lunar surface brightness rivaling reflected sunlight levels over small areas, if the kinetic energy flow density of the gas is sufficiently high. The aberrated solar wind flow past the moon would enhance the visibility of such interactions near the lunar sunrise terminator, supporting the statistical studies which indicate that the “Lunar Transient Phenomena” (anomalous optical phenomena on the moon) are significantly correlated with the position of the terminator on the lunar surface.     

大地震前震源区附近显著地震地方平太阴时分布特征及解释

研究了１２次７级地震和４４次６级地震震前震源区及其附近发生的显著地震地方平太阴时τ的分布规律．根据月亮在地球内任一点形成的起潮力是一个主要周期为１２ｈ２５ｍｉｎ左右的周期性函数及月亮在地方平太阴时相隔１８０°的两个位置上对地球内任一点起潮力基本相同这一现象，计算了大地震前两个显著地震地方平太阴时τ的夹角△τＡ以及两个显著地震地方平太阴时与主震地方平太阴时夹角的平均值△τＢ。计算结果表明，对大部分地震，△τＡ≤４５°和△τＢ≤４５°，说明显著地震和主震发生时，月亮差不多都在震源区的同一方位或与这一方位相隔１８０°的位置附近．用裂隙串通地震孕育模式对这一现象作了解释，认为显著地震和主震的地方平太阴时的分布都与主震断层走向有关．指出△τＡ≤４５°这一现象可作为一种地震前兆用于地震预报。     

Understanding the Moon’s internal structure through moonquake observations and remote sensing technologies

Explorations for the interior structure of the Moon mainly involve three technologies: the early gravitational observations via circumlunar satellites, the moonquake observations during the Apollo period, and the recent high-resolution remote sensing observations. Based on these technologies, we divided the development of the moon’s interior structure into three stages. The first stage is the discovery of high-density anomalous masses (mascons) on the lunar surface with the low-order gravitational field models, which were obtained by observing perturbations of the early lunar orbital satellites. The second stage is the preliminary understanding of the layer structure with the help of moonquake observations during the Apollo period. The third stage is the deep understanding of the structure of the lunar crust, mantle, and core, with the use of high-resolution remote sensing data and the reassessment of moonquake data from the Apollo’s mission. This paper gave detailed introduction and comments on different observation technologies, gathered data, and data processing techniques used at the three stages. In addition, this paper analyzed the current issues in the researches on the Moon’s internal structure and discussed the prospects for future explorations.     

Temperatures in the lunar interior and some implications

Data on the electrical conductivity of olivine and pyroxene obtained under redox conditions similar to those that exist in the moon indicate that the moon is at temperatures near the melting point at depths of 600–900 km. This temperature profile, combined with information on the distribution of radioactive elements and evidence of extensive differentiation of the moon, lead to the conclusion that the moon accreted at temperatures between 600–1000°C. This high accretion temperature can be reconciled with the presence of FeS and the probable FeO/MgO ratio in the lunar interior if the moon accreted from material which was depleted in H₂ relative to the solar nebula.     

月球表层及月壳物质密度分布特征

月球表层与月壳岩石密度的横向与径向的变化,反映了月表及内部成分以及月球演化等特征.本文利用月球勘探者号伽马射线谱仪探测的月表Fe, Th与Mg元素分布数据,依据前人给出的元素含量与岩石类型的关系,对月球表层进行了岩性填图,并结合岩石样品与陨石的密度测试数据建立初始密度模型,采用铁元素与岩石密度的关系对其进行修正,从而建立了月表物质密度分布模型.基于嫦娥一号激光测高数据和日本SELENE计划发布的月球重力模型,计算出月球布格重力异常,进而反演得到月壳0~40 km深度范围内岩石平均密度分布模型.分析表明,大部分区域上,月壳至少月壳上部岩石成分主要以轻质的富含铝、钙、镁质的硅酸盐类岩石为主.由此推测,原始月壳极有可能是由轻质的、富含钙、镁质硅酸盐类岩石构成的全球性月壳.现今的玄武岩与克里普岩只是覆盖于原始的月壳之上的岩层,且厚度不大.     

Evaluation of approximations in modelling the cooling of magmatic bodies

The cooling of a magmatic intrusion is simulated by a simple model of a non-homogeneous earth, with thermal properties depending on temperature, in which heat transfer is assumed to take place by conduction only. The mathematical problem consists in solving a non-linear partial differential equation with continuity conditions on temperature and heat flux imposed at the contacts between different rocks. This has been done numerically by a finite difference method. The model is then adopted as “reality” against which a number of commonly used approximations are tested. It is found that the effect of latent heat liberation can be reasonably taken into account by attributing an effective initial temperature to the magma (errors within 20°C for t > 10⁵ years, when the temperature of the magma is still as high as 600°C); the effective specific heat approximation does not work as well. The dependence of thermal conductivity and specific heat on temperature may be eliminated by maintaining the errors within 30°C for t < 5 × 10⁵ years. The assumption that magma and country rocks have the same thermal properties allows an estimate of the temperature field in the host rocks with errors of 50°C at most. The assumption that all rocks have the same constant conductivity yields results that are far from “reality” (errors of 100–200°C even at shallow depth).     

Effect of the annular solar eclipse of 15 January 2010 on the lower atmospheric boundary layer over a tropical rural station

This paper documents the effect of the annular solar eclipse of 15 January 2010 on the lower atmospheric boundary layer dynamics over a complex terrain environment at Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E,) using a suite of instruments namely automatic weather station, mini boundary layer mast (15 m), Doppler SODAR, GPS radiosonde and ozonesonde observations. The net heating rates are estimated using radiative transfer algorithm before, during and after the eclipse. Effect on soil temperature is seen clearly up to 20 cm depth and at all the levels up to 15 m. Decrease in the thermal plume level, a dip in the surface layer and a strong vertical downdrafts (subsidence) are noticed during the peak eclipse. Upper layer winds did not show any variation during the eclipse. It is also found to have pronounced effect on all the surface meteorological parameters for a two-day period.     

对月球重力场特征的理解

依据克莱门汀号和月球勘探者号月球探测器所获得的数据所建立最新的地球重力模型和地形模型,为人类深入了解月球内部性质及其演化特征,提供新的平台.M.T. Zuber (1994) 和 M. A. Wieczorek (1998) 所建立的月壳全球模型,为利用最新月球着力资料研究月球内部构造和演化,揭示月球上独特的“物质瘤”之成因等科学问题,开凿了先河.本文通过对现有的月球重力和地形数进行分析和计算,提出作者对月球内部物质分布特征的理解和一些认识.从宏观角度看,月球布格重力异常与月球地形起伏是相关的,统计结果表明它们呈弱负相关,从均衡角度来说,在月球停止大规模内部物质运动之前,月球壳幔可能已基本达到均衡;从Mascon深度估算结果来看,一些大型的Mascon基本属于玄武岩浆“充填”型的,少数Mascon可能与月幔柱有关,如东方海Mascon.