尼泊尔某项目滚石灾害的工程地质调查与评价

滚石灾害是山区常见的地质灾害类型,研究滚石的运动特征对地质灾害调查及危险性评估有着重要意义.通过对尼泊尔某项目滚石灾害后现场进行工程地质调查,分析其灾害成因机制,查明事故原因.调查结果表明:9·15灾害非人类活动的影响,属自然地质灾害,造成事故的主要原因为超高位岩体崩塌,而滚石的范围又超过前期预测的危险区.通过现场痕迹...     

郑万高铁宜万段边坡危岩崩落破坏特征

危岩是山区常见的地质灾害之一。以往研究缺少对危岩整体破坏导致危岩解体方面的关注,而危岩在失稳崩落过程中的解体行为却是预测危岩影响范围和防治成效的关键所在。为此,文章以郑万（郑州—万州）高铁宜万段沿线隧道洞口边坡危岩为研究对象,从结构面角度出发,对危岩崩落破坏特征进行研究。通过对15个隧道洞口边坡的调查,首先从边坡坡度、岩性组合、相对高差三个方面总结了研究区危岩发育分布规律;然后根据边坡岩体结构特征,分析了危岩失稳模式,并基于边坡上部危岩和下部落石的体积和形状对应关系,进一步探讨了边坡危岩崩落破坏演化过程;在此基础上,利用Rockfall模拟软件对落石运动特征进行预测分析。结果表明:（1）研究区边坡呈上陡下缓地形,上部基岩裸露,坡度基本上≥70°;危岩主要发育于弱风化的灰岩和白云岩中;边坡高差在150~300 m之间。（2）边坡上部危岩将呈阶梯状方式逐渐沿基底结构面滑移或者沿后缘结构面拉裂坠落。（3）研究区危岩崩落破坏模式主要为边坡上部岩体沿结构面解体破坏。（4）大部分隧道洞口边坡落石危险性较大,严重威胁隧道洞口的安全,需要采取相应的防治措施。研究成果可为在建的郑万高铁宜万段隧道边坡危岩的有效防治提供参考。     

融合区域潜在落石源区识别的峡谷区落石危险性评价

山西壶关太行山大峡谷景区为中国最美十大峡谷之一,但景区落石灾害频发,严重威胁景区安全运营。本文基于高精度地形信息与岩土体强度特性,采用坡度角分布方法开展区域尺度潜在落石源区识别,并引入岩体破坏敏感性指标定量描述潜在落石源区失稳概率。然后,利用经验模型Flow-R模拟落石运动扩散过程,获取落石的传播概率与能量分布情况。最后,提出落石危险性双因子评价模型实现落石危险性定量评估。获得主要结论如下:(1)研究区内潜在落石源区面积为25.7 km2(35.7%),主要以条带状分布于峡谷两侧陡壁。其中岩体破坏高敏感性区为3.3 km2。(2)研究区落石高危险区面积达3.22 km2,主要威胁景区内游客集散地与交通线路,尤其在S327荫林线红豆峡入口处落石危险性最高。(3)野外调查验证结果表明了应用坡度角分布方法识别潜在落石源区的高效性与准确性,提出的双因子评价模型可为峡谷区落石危险性评估提供快速解决方案。本文提出的“区域落石源区识别-源区失稳概率分析-落石危险性评估”的一整套技术方案能够为类似的高山峡谷区落石灾害早期识别及风险防控提供技术参考。     

New understandings of the June 24th 2017 Xinmo Landslide,Maoxian, Sichuan,China

On June 24, 2017 (21:39 UTC, June 23rd), a catastrophic landslide occurred at Xinmo village of Mao County, Sichuan Province, China. Soon after the event, some research teams carried out field investigations in order to both support the emergency operations and to understand the failure mechanism and possible evolutionary scenarios. Based on further in-depth interpretation of high-resolution remote-sensing images and detailed field surveys, it is newly found that there are at least six old rockfall deposits in the source area that prove the historic activity of the landslide scarp. Seismic data of the event and morphological evidences along the slope indicate that the landslide was preceded by a significant rockfall. Mechanical calculations show that the surface force due to pore water was far less than the impact force due to the rockfall. It means that the subsequent major rock avalanche was more likely due to the impact of the rockfall on the rock slope below, which broke the rock bridges and caused drop of shear resistance along the fractures. According to these new understandings, a different triggering mechanism for the landslide is proposed.     

2D and 3D rockfall hazard analysis and protection measures for Saptashrungi Gad Temple,Vani, Nashik,Maharashtra – A case study

The Saptashrungi gad temple (SGT) situated on basaltic hills belongs to Deccan volcanic of Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene, is one among the 51 Shakti Peeths and most holy place for pilgrims. Rockfall is a major problem in the past and causing danger to the lives of the villagers settled at the toe of the SGT hill as well as the pilgrims who perform parikrama along the tracks. On the evening of 16 April 2011, an old woman died due to rockfall at SGT hill when she was performing parikrama, moreover, two persons got injured during the deliverance process of this old woman from the continuous rockfall activity. The problem of rockfall could be linked to rainfall, jointing, weathering, man-made or the compounding of all. In this research, the rockfall hazard analysis at SGT hill is assessed using both 2D and 3D rockfall programs along the two parikrama paths: Parikrama Path 1 (or the Badi Parikrama Path ‘BPP’), and Parikrama Path 2 (or the Chhoti Parikrama Path ‘CPP’). Also, the study area of the SGT hill has been divided into eight zones (Zone#01 to Zone#08), based on field observations, orientations of joint sets and hill slope faces and eighteen topographic profiles (AA' to RR') have been taken from these eight zones for rockfall analysis. A detailed topographic survey along with field investigation has been carried out along the temple for ascertaining the nature of rock, discontinuity orientations, and slope geometry. DEM has been generated using topographic profile in ArcGIS to facilitate the 3D rockfall analysis. Maximum rock block sizes are taken into the analysis and run-out distance, bounce height, kinetic energy and velocity of the basaltic blocks are evaluated separately. Based on the analyzed data, the rockfall hazard zone map has been prepared and site having potential rockfall risks have been identified. Finally, wire/net meshing has been proposed after removal of unstable blocks as a stabilization and protection measures.It is worth mentioning here that for the first time rockfall hazard assessment was made in such detail for a site. Suggestions made are implemented by the State Government for the protection of the temple as well as the life of pilgrims performing the parikrama from the rockfall.     

小浪底水库区垣曲段近岸区地质灾害类型及防治措施

小浪底库区垣曲段近岸区地质环境条件比较复杂，库区近岸以崩塌、滑坡、黄土湿陷为主的地质灾害较为发育，水库蓄水升至275m水位后，必将引起库岸再造，库区水位以下岩土均被软化，引发水下崩塌、滑坡、沿河黄土岸坡也会不断崩塌后退，直接危及沿岸居民区及沿河工矿企业及公路的安全。文章总结了库区近岸各种类型地质灾害发育特征及其成因，通过对库区近岸崩塌、滑坡形成条件的分析，基本查明了区内崩塌，滑坡发育的基本规律，对库区环境地质问题进行了分区，并对主要居民区环境地质问题进行了评价，运用工程地质类比法及理论计算法，对主要居民区是否受到坍岸危害，进行了最终坍岸宽度计算，对区内环境和地质问题进行了预测，在对区内各主要居民点及库区近岸区环境地质条件分析后，提出了以勘查与治理，运用生物工程及灾情预估等内容的减灾防灾对策。     

Predictive GIS-Based Model of Rockfall Activity in Mountain Cliffs

Rockfall susceptibility has been analysed in mountain cliffs of the Cantabrian Range, North Spain. The main aim of this analysis has been to build a predictive model of rockfall activity from a low number of environmental and geological variables. The rockfall activity has been quantified in a GIS. The cartographic information used shows the spatial distribution of all the recent talus screes as well as their associated source areas in the rock-slopes. The area relation At/Ar (recent talus scree polygon/source basins) in the rock slopes has been used as the rockfall activity indicator. This relation has been validated in 50 pilot rock-slopes and compared with the relation number of recent rock fragments/source basin, obtained from field work. The environmental factors causing rockfall depend on the rock slope situation, and these are: altitude and sun radiation on the rock cliff. The geological factors considered are: lithology, relative position of the main discontinuities with respect to the topographic surface and two morphologic parameters: the roughness and slope gradient. A logistic regression analysis has been applied to a population of 442 limestone and quartzite rock cliffs. The dependent variable is the rockfall activity indicator, which allows the definition of two classes of rock cliff units: low and high activity. The independent variables are altitude, sun radiation (equinox radiation, summer solstice radiation, winter solstice radiation), slope roughness, slope gradient,anisotropy and lithology. Results suggest that it is possible tobuild a valid cartographic predictive model for rockfall activity in mountain rock cliffs from a limited number of easily obtainable variables. The method is especially applicable in massive rock slopes or in regions with uniform rock mass characteristics.     

Rockfall trajectory modeling combined with heuristic analysis for assessing the rockfall hazard along the Maratea SS18 coastal road (Basilicata,Southern Italy)

In this paper, a study aimed to assess the rockfall hazard along a portion of the SS18 coastal road, located in the coastal area of Maratea (Basilicata Region, Southern Italy), is presented. The relevance of this study derives from the location of the study area, because the SS18 is a strategic roads in a touristic area, and, since the hazard assessment was performed in 2004 within a project financed by the Viability Regional Department of Autonomous National Company of Roads (ANAS), from the possibility to validate the results by using real rockfall events occurred after 2004. The procedure for assessing the rockfall hazard was composed of four sequential analyses: (i) geomechanical and kinematic characterization of rock mass, (ii) implementation of Romana’s (1985) Slope Mass Rating (SMR) method for identifying the potential boulder release areas (rockfall initiation areas), (iii) determination of rockfall trajectories by using a 3D numerical model (ROTOMAP), (iv) calculation and mapping of the hazard index by combining three factors, i.e., (a) lithological features of outcropping materials on rock faces, (b) kinematic compatibility defined by simulating the rockfall trajectories, and (c) spatial distribution of occurred rockfall events. Finally, the proposed methodology was validated by combining the distribution of the hazard levels along the road with the location on the SS18 of the rockfall events occurred from 2004 to 2014.     

Rockfall detachment susceptibility map in El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, Spain

A semi-quantitative heuristic methodology is developed to map a rockfall detachment susceptibility zonation of El Hierro Island (Canary Archipelago). The rationalized procedure, which we called non-weighted bounded indicators, is based on overlapping thematic maps of conditioning factors to mass movement, which are appropriately and individually rescaled and then composed by addition to obtain a susceptibility numerical index through a GIS. As the consistency of the geomorphological analysis depends on the expert subjective criteria and the appropriate interpretation of the landscape, the use of this methodology reduces subjectivity and quantifies the degree of susceptibility. The main factors affecting the mass movement phenomena (rockfalls events), also recognized in the field and, therefore, considered in the presented GIS arrangement, are slope, profile curvature, lithology, vegetation cover and dykes density. To calculate the slope threshold or minimum angle characteristic of rockfall source areas, mixed Gaussian slope frequency decomposition is used. The curvature index reveals stepwise areas. Qualitative geomechanical characteristics are linked to a quantitative index according to a volcanic lithological-complexes classification. Both destabilization (root-wedging) and stabilization effects are considered into the vegetation cover index. The dyke density index incorporates the bearing rock capacity decrease produced in the halo around a dyke network intrusion. Slope, curvature and vegetation indexes thresholds have been fitted following field observations. A rockfall detachment susceptibility map is obtained and classified based on the histogram maxima. The rockfall inventory, based on rockfall events reported within the island, was used for the model validation. A 12?% of the whole island shows medium to very high susceptibility.     

重庆甑子岩崩塌落石动力学特征及危险性分区

针对重庆市南川区甑子岩危岩体面临的崩塌地质灾害问题,分析不同高度、不同规模的危岩体对东侧居民区的落石风险及危害性。以甑子岩处岩质边坡为研究对象,根据其结构面发育情况及崩塌落石特征确定模型尺寸,运用RocFall软件对崩塌落石的能量、速度、运动轨迹、落点位置及冲击力等进行模拟计算。以此对崩塌落石区进行落石风险评估,根据崩塌落石的动量和动能,按最危险原则法将崩塌落石的危险性分区,分为Ⅰ危险性极大、Ⅱ危险性大、Ⅲ危险性一般、Ⅳ危险性较小、Ⅴ无危险五个分区,并将此分区应用于甑子岩危岩体,评价崩子岩危岩体居民区的落石风险及危险性,确保居民安全。通过对崩塌落石区的危险性分区,可以用来指导居民区的安置和防护措施。     

GIS-based evaluation of rockfall risk along routes in Greece

This article presents a GIS-based system, designed to assist in the management of rockfall risk along Greek routes. The system was developed in two stages; the field data collection led to the implementation of a rockfall rating system with its fundamental parameters, while the data process concluded to a rockfall data base and a GIS-based interface. The fundamental parameters were derived from the rockfall hazard rating system developed by Pierson et al. at the Oregon State Highway Division and provide a coherent approach to decide the type and the cost of protection measures to be applied in an area affected by rockfalls and presents highest rockfall risk. The system presented in this paper as well as the original system comprises exponential scoring functions that represent the increased hazard and reflected in nine categories forming the classification. The method presented in this paper modified certain categories from the original system which were described qualitatively and may lead to quite subjective estimations. These categories are ditch effectiveness; climate and presence of water on slope as well as rockfall history. Moreover, the original category “Geologic characteristic” was changed to Structural and Discontinuities Index; an index that relates blockiness of rock mass and orientation of joints with their weathering condition and their roughness. This index follows the classification of weathering and joint’s roughness suggested by International Society of Rock Mechanics, while other modifications regarding the categories “decision sight distance” and “roadway width” were applied based on Greek standards. An application of this modified method to a 3 km road which connects Athinios port and Fira, the capital of Santorini island, Greece, a high traffic intensity road where rockfalls periodically cause traffic interruptions is presented. The method was applied in fifteen cross sections of slopes adjacent to the road and the analyses showed increased risk and the need for urgent remedial works.     

Stability analysis of rock slopes along Gangadarshan,Pauri, Garhwal,Uttarakhand

The rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR) has been carried out to classify the slope in terms of slope instability. To understand the RMR and SMR various geostructural, geomorphologic and hydrological parameters of the slopes were measured and analyzed. 32 rock slopes/rock cum debris slopes were identified in the study area. The present RMR and SMR study is an outcome of extensive field study along a stretch of about 10 km on road leading from Srinagar to Pauriarea along Alaknanda valley. The technique followed incorporates the relation between discontinuities and slope along with rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR). The analysis of the 32 studied slopes shows that in the Gangadarshan area out of six rock slope facets, two falls in class II (stable) and four in class IV (unstable). It is significant to note that the slope facets coming under class IV are comprised of active landslide portions. While the slopes under class II show minor failure or old landslide debris.     

鄂西山区崩塌落石运动特征及危险性分析

以远安县瓦坡崩塌区为例,通过地质调查、野外测绘、无人机航拍,建立了瓦坡崩塌区三维模型,基于Rockfall Analyst（RA）分析软件,实现了瓦坡崩塌区大量崩塌落石三维空间下运动路径、高度、能量等要素模拟,探究了崩塌区落石的三维运动特征,开展了崩塌区落石危险性评估,为崩塌落石的防治提供科学参考。研究结果表明:崩塌区危岩主要破坏形式为倾倒式,目前处于欠稳定状态;模拟落石三维运动轨迹与已有落石点基本重合,说明此次模拟结果与实际情况较为吻合;落石运动过程中以碰撞弹跳、自由飞落为主,落石主要集中在崩塌区下部冲沟及公路内,部分落石达到居民区,在崩塌落石区下部公路、冲沟及崩塌区右侧危险性较高;崩塌落石防治工程建议采用危石孤石清除+被动防护网,在公路内侧、斜坡下方分别设置5 m高和3 m高抗冲击力2 000 kJ的被动防护网,可有效拦截落石。     

无人机影像在高陡边坡危岩体调查中的应用

在高陡边坡危岩体的调查中,复杂的地形条件经常限制工作的正常开展,如何快速准确地获取地质灾害信息一直是地质灾害调查研究中的难点之一。以往的研究中对无人机遥感技术在黄土、高原等地区应用有所报道,但对西南地区高陡边坡危岩体灾害调查的研究尚无报道。文章以锦屏二级水电站出线场边坡落石灾害所在区域为例,将无人机摄影测量技术应用于高陡边坡危岩体调查中,通过无人机倾斜摄影获取高分辨率遥感影像,开展遥感影像三维建模,进行地质灾害遥感解译,总结了无人机遥感系统在高陡边坡危岩体调查的技术流程。通过三维实景模型,精确地分析了落石灾害的空间分布、失稳模式及演化过程,查明了区域内危岩隐患点的分布特征;基于三维点云模型,提取出地质灾害体的属性信息,测得落石方量为11.7 m3,采用最小二乘法进行平面拟合,得到落石两组主控结构面产状为275.4°∠31.2°、103.5°∠63.3°。实践表明,无人机遥感技术在高陡边坡地区落石灾害调查中具有明显的可行性和优越性,可以较好地应用于高陡边坡危岩体调查中。     

Geotechnical characterization and rockfall simulation of a slope: a practical case study from South Tyrol (Italy)

Rockfalls occur often along the state road SS241 Val d'Ega in the Val d'Ega Valley (South Tyrol, Italy). In order to protect the road and the traffic, stabilization works are necessary. Detailed geological and geomorphologic mapping along structural and geomechanic sections was carried out, and experimental rockfall trails were examined on the slope above the state road between km 3.550 and 3.830. Rockfall simulation, rock mass classification and an interpretation of field data, especially concerning joints, wrapped up the investigations. They helped find the specific need for stabilization work and its positioning along the slope. The stabilization works were completed on February 2002. Another important aspect concerns ongoing geotechnical investigations and stabilization works urgently realised during autumn 1999.

This paper is a practical approach in solving rockfall problems along public roads. It should be considered as a workbook for university personnel and also for professional geologists.     

Rockfall susceptibility zoning at a large scale: From geomorphological inventory to preliminary land use planning

Rockfall, up to several hundreds of cubic meters, is a frequent and rapid landslide which menaces extensive areas in mountainous territories. Rockfall susceptibility zoning map at a large scale (1:5000–1:25 000) can be the first tool for land use planning in order to manage rockfall risk. A methodology allowing to analyze susceptibility in extensive areas with optimum cost/benefit relationship is needed. This work analyzes rockfall susceptibility in an extensive rocky mountain of the Principality of Andorra (Pyrenees Mountains), first on the rock slope and then on the exposed area located below. The rockfall record, obtained by means of geomorphological analysis, supplies the main data to analyze the susceptibility on the rock slope. An additional historical inventory verifies the accuracy of rockfall sizes recorded by means of the geomorphological analysis. According to the classification recommended by the Guidelines of Joint Technical Committee, the density of rockfall features on the rock slope assesses susceptibility in four levels. Subsequently, susceptibility on exposed areas has been analyzed by means of reach probability of rock blocks analysis using empirical models. Data acquired from thirteen recent events, from 1999 to 2004, have been used to verify the accuracy of the two empirical models mainly used (reach angle and shadow angle). Five reach probability limits (1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.01, and 0) establish boundaries between susceptibility levels. The resulting rockfall susceptibility zoning map allows: (a) to identify land areas and human elements exposed to rockfalls and, (b) to establish several exposition levels. This map can be a useful and cost-effective tool for administrations responsible to manage natural risk in order to guide urban grow in extensive areas or decide upon work programs based on in-depth analysis (hazard and risk).     

A fractal fragmentation model for rockfalls

The impact-induced rock mass fragmentation in a rockfall is analyzed by comparing the in situ block size distribution (IBSD) of the rock mass detached from the cliff face and the resultant rockfall block size distribution (RBSD) of the rockfall fragments on the slope. The analysis of several inventoried rockfall events suggests that the volumes of the rockfall fragments can be characterized by a power law distribution. We propose the application of a three-parameter rockfall fractal fragmentation model (RFFM) for the transformation of the IBSD into the RBSD. A discrete fracture network model is used to simulate the discontinuity pattern of the detached rock mass and to generate the IBSD. Each block of the IBSD of the detached rock mass is an initiator. A survival rate is included to express the proportion of the unbroken blocks after the impact on the ground surface. The model was calibrated using the volume distribution of a rockfall event in Vilanova de Banat in the Cadí Sierra, Eastern Pyrenees, Spain. The RBSD was obtained directly in the field, by measuring the rock block fragments deposited on the slope. The IBSD and the RBSD were fitted by exponential and power law functions, respectively. The results show that the proposed fractal model can successfully generate the RBSD from the IBSD and indicate the model parameter values for the case study.     

Magnitude and frequency relations: are there geological constraints to the rockfall size?

There exists a transition between rockfalls, large rock mass failures, and rock avalanches. The magnitude and frequency relations (M/F) of the slope failure are increasingly used to assess the hazard level. The management of the rockfall risk requires the knowledge of the frequency of the events but also defining the worst case scenario, which is the one associated to the maximum expected (credible) rockfall event. The analysis of the volume distribution of the historical rockfall events in the slopes of the Solà d’Andorra during the last 50 years shows that they can be fitted to a power law. We argue that the extrapolation of the F-M relations far beyond the historical data is not appropriate in this case. Neither geomorphological evidences of past events nor the size of the potentially unstable rock masses identified in the slope support the occurrence of the large rockfall/rock avalanche volumes predicted by the power law. We have observed that the stability of the slope at the Solà is controlled by the presence of two sets of unfavorably dipping joints (F3, F5) that act as basal sliding planes of the detachable rock masses. The area of the basal sliding planes outcropping at the rockfall scars was measured with a terrestrial laser scanner. The distribution of the areas of the basal planes may be also fitted to a power law that shows a truncation for values bigger than 50 m² and a maximum exposed surface of 200 m². The analysis of the geological structure of the rock mass at the Solà d’Andorra makes us conclude that the size of the failures is controlled by the fracture pattern and that the maximum size of the failure is constrained. Two sets of steeply dipping faults (F1 and F7) interrupt the other joint sets and prevent the formation of continuous failure surfaces (F3 and F5). We conclude that due to the structural control, large slope failures in Andorra are not randomly distributed thus confirming the findings in other mountain ranges.     

青藏铁路设兴村段崩塌特征分析与运动学模拟

西藏拉萨—羊八井段建有青藏铁路、京拉公路(G109)、京藏高速(G6)三大重要交通工程和大量输电线路。然而,该区段山高坡陡,崩塌灾害频发,给交通和输电的安全运营带来极大的威胁。现阶段对崩塌灾害的分析与预测多是基于地形剖面的二维方法,限制了崩塌块石的运动方向,难以对崩塌的影响范围进行有效的评估。鉴于此,作者借助现场调查、基于无人机航摄的高精度三维地表形貌建模、崩塌运动的三维数值模拟等方法,以青藏铁路设兴村段崩塌为例,分析了历史崩塌块石分布、岩体结构面产状和危岩区特征,并进行了崩塌块石的运动学模拟。通过模拟获得了崩塌的影响范围和到达概率、优势运动路径以及优势运动路径下危岩区块石距坡面的高度和动能,结果表明危岩区的崩塌块石主要威胁输电线路和京拉公路,对青藏铁路和京藏高速无影响。相关模拟结果还对于崩塌防护范围、高度和强度的确定具有指导意义。