Propagation effects on radiation field pulses generated by cloud lightning flashes

As the electromagnetic fields propagate over finitely conducting ground, selective attenuation of the high frequencies takes place. As a result, the signatures of broad-band electromagnetic radiation fields generated by lightning flashes change as they propagate over such ground. In addition to being a function of the electrical parameters of the ground over which the electromagnetic fields propagate, these propagation effects depend on the height of their source above ground level. This makes the propagation effects on radiation fields from cloud flashes differ from those on the radiation fields generated by return strokes in ground flashes. In this paper the propagation effects on radiation field pulses of cloud flashes are illustrated and it is shown that these effects are not as severe as those of return strokes in ground flashes.     

Modeling of thundercloud VHF/UHF radiation on the lightning preliminary breakdown stage

It is well known that there are two basic parts of electromagnetic emissions from a thunderstorm cloud. The first one is due to a return stroke and the second is generated by microdischarges on the lightning preliminary stage and between successive return strokes. The purpose of this paper is to consider the second part of electromagnetic emissions from thunderstorm clouds in a frequency range from one to hundreds of MHz. A new approach is developed, which is based on a three-dimensional computer simulation of microdischarge activity in thunderstorm clouds. We suggest that microdischarges on the lightning preliminary stage are connected with the growth of internal electric cell structures in a thunderstorm cloud. The characteristic scale of cells ranges from ten to hundred meters. The source of these cells can be a beam-plasma-like instability in the thunderstorm cloud medium where microdischarges appear as a saturation mechanism for this instability. Interaction of neighboring cells leads to the formation of dynamic chains of microdischarges. Following step-by-step computer simulations, we calculate radio emissions from every microdischarge and sum up the wave amplitudes from all intracloud volume at the reception point. The standard model for a separate microdischarge current is adopted, and the electromagnetic radiation is estimated in the far zone. We obtain the waveforms of electromagnetic field, the temporal development of radiation and the number of electromagnetic pulses. We have found that signal statistics and calculated frequency spectra exhibit a universal power-law (fractal) behavior. The results of simulations are found to be in satisfactory agreement with the experimental data, because the model waveforms demonstrate a close similarity to the observed ones. Also the temporal development with the duration of pulse trains from ten to hundreds of microseconds and the microdischarge number rate up to hundreds of thousands per second are in agreement with the corresponding experimental data.     

长偶极大功率可控源电磁波响应特征研究

地球物理学中关于电磁波勘探研究通常采用的是地球半空间模型.然而,对于几十公里的有限长电缆源（长偶极源）,远距离电磁波场探测必须要考虑电离层的影响,它是一个全空间问题.关于包含电离层、空气层和地球介质（我们称“地-电离层”模式）的电磁波场特征的研究在国外较少,国内几乎是空白.本文采用全空间积分方程法首先对小尺度的可控源电磁波场特征进行了研究,由于此时电离层的影响可忽略,它应该和半空间成熟的CSAMT模拟结果一致,对比结果表明,二者是一致的,验证了全空间模拟方法的可靠性和有效性.随后进行了50 km长电缆电离层和空气层高度都为100 km的“地-电离层”模式大尺度电磁波场模拟,以探讨大尺度可控源电磁波场的特征.给定频率的“地-电离层”模式电磁场的衰减曲线表明长电缆远距离电磁波场由于受电离层的作用存在衰减逐渐变小的过渡场和衰减变小的波导场.为了探讨复杂介质“地-电离层”模式电磁波特征,对“地-电离层”模式的典型地盾和地台多层介质模型进行了数值模拟,得到了偶极源长度50 km、电流200A、收发距离远达1600 km和2500 km的合理的电磁场结果.最后,对一简单含油储层结构模型进行了长偶极、大功率、远距离电磁波场响应计算.储层横向不均匀复杂结构模拟的结果表明,考虑电离层和大气层的“地-电离层”模式大尺度深层复杂介质模拟时,电磁场对深部目标体仍有很好的异常响应.     

Wavelet analysis of lightning return stroke

In this investigation, time series consisting of electric field waveforms of 15 positive return strokes and 10 negative return strokes were analyzed. The data came from a summer thunderstorm in March in a range of about 200 km around São José dos Campos, São Paulo. The electric field recording system consisted of a flat plate antenna with a decay time constant of 260 μs and a sample rate of 800,000 samples per second. The bandwidth observed was up to 100 kHz and the recording system was synchronized with GPS time and located at São José dos Campos. Wavelet analysis of the electric field waveforms was done in order to investigate the behavior of the return stroke spectrum in time. The return stroke was suggested to be divided into two portions: initial stage and overshoot (for far return stroke) and initial stage and ramp (for close return stroke). The return stroke power spectrum was observed to be distributed in a frequency range with the peak value also distributed in a fraction of this range. Power peaks for ramps are stronger than power peaks for initial stage and overshoot. Finally, it was observed how powerful the wavelet is in the analysis of lightning.     

Interpretation of MHD-sounding data from the Kola Peninsula by the electromagnetic migration method

The electromagnetic migration method, based on principles analogous to those of seismic migration, is developed.The concept of migrated fields is based on the Stratton-Chu type integrals, written in reverse time for the observed electromagnetic fields. Four types of migrated fields, which form a system of migration transformations of the transient electromagnetic field, are introduced.Study of the properties of the migrated fields by means of theoretical and model examples makes it possible to determine the optimal parameters of the migration procedure in which the anomalous field sources are localized by means of migration transformation.Information about the experiment using the MHD-generator (experiment ‘Chibini’) carried out on the Kola Peninsula to study the geoelectrical structure of the Earth's crust and upper mantle is included. The electromagnetic migration method for the interpretation of MHD-sounding data recorded on the Kola Peninsula, along a profile crossing the mineral-rich region of the Imandra-Varzuga structure, permits us to determine the location of a conducting zone at the depth of 10 km in the Earth's crust.     

1991年北京延庆人工引雷实验及分析

简要地叙述了北京１９９１年夏天利用火箭－导线技术两次引雷成功的结果．两次引雷成功均是在地面电场为正（即正电荷当顶）时触发的．触发时地面电场分别为３．１ｋＶ／ｍ和２．５ｋＶ／ｍ，高度在３００－４００ｍ之间．分析表明，两次火箭引雷均系火箭上升到一定高度时激发上行负流光，然后产生连续对地放正电的过程，无回击发生．简单模式分析表明，中和电量小于１０Ｃ，火箭上升过程导线中电晕电流约为４ｍＡ．     

HF radiation emitted by chaotic leader processes

This paper presents direct measurements of narrowband 10 MHz HF radiation from so-called “chaotic leaders” associated with subsequent return strokes. Although the term is controversial and poorly defined, we find that more than 30% of subsequent strokes in close lightning flashes contain electric field characteristics that are best described as “chaotic”. In earlier studies, return strokes have consistently been observed to be the strongest sources of HF radiation, but the results for leader processes are less consistent. We also observe return strokes to be the main HF emitter, and the leaders before the first return stroke in a flash sequence also emit HF though somewhat less intensely. The leaders preceding subsequent strokes typically emit little or no HF radiation, whether they are dart or dart-stepped leaders.However, it was observed that the presence of a chaotic component increases the leader HF intensity dramatically Defining the HF intensity unequivocally can be problematic for processes like chaotic leaders which have a combination of continuous and impulsive phenomena. Two time-domain methods were used to measure the HF intensity, the peak energy and the RMS energy. In the frequency domain these correspond to the energy spectral density (ESD) and power spectral density (PSD), respectively.It was found that the methods are not necessarily compatible. Thus, it is suggested that to clarify future work, leader processes should be characterized by the PSD rather than the ESD.     

基于二次场电导率分块连续变化的三维可控源电磁有限元数值模拟

从电偶源三维地电断面可控源电磁法的二次电场边值问题及其变分问题出发,采用任意六面体单元对研究区域进行剖分,并且在单元分析中同时对电导率及二次电场进行三线性插值,实现电导率分块连续变化情况下,基于二次场的可控源电磁三维有限元数值模拟.这个新的可控源电磁三维正演方法可以模拟实际勘探中地下任意形状及电性参数连续变化的复杂模型.理论模型的计算结果表明,均匀大地计算的视电阻率误差和相位误差分别为0.002%和0.0005°.分层连续变化模型的有限元计算结果表明,其与对应的分层均匀模型解析结果有明显差异.三维异常体组合模型以及倾斜异常体等复杂模型的有限元计算结果也有效地反映了异常形态.     

Artificially triggered lightning and its characteristic discharge parameters in two severe thunderstorms

The lightning-induced-damages in the mid-latitude regions are usually caused during severe thunder-storms. But the discharge parameters of natural lightning are difficult to be measured. Five lightning flashes have been artificially triggered with the rocket-wire technique during the passage of two severe thunderstorms. The discharge current and close electric field of return stroke in artificially triggered lightning have been obtained in microsecond time resolution by using current measuring systems and electric field change sensors. The results show that the five triggered lightning flashes include 1 to 10 return strokes, and the average return stroke current is 11.9 kA with a maximum of 21.0 kA and a mini-mum of 6.6 kA, similar to the subsequent return strokes in natural lightning. The half peak width of the current waveform is 39 μs, which is much larger than the usual result. The peak current of stroke Ip (kA) and the neutralized charge Q(C) has a relationship of Ip = 18.5Q0.65. The radiation field of return stroke is 5.9 kV·m-1 and 0.39 kV·m-1 at 60 m and 550 m, respectively. The radiation field decreases as r -1.119 with increase of horizontal distance r from the discharge channel. Based on the well-accepted transmission line model, the speed of return stroke is estimated to be about 1.4×108 m·s-1, with a variation range of (1.1―1.6)×108 m·s-1. Because of the similarities of the triggered lightning and natural lightning, the results in this article can be used in the protection design of natural lightning.     

Propagation effects on the electric field time derivatives generated by return strokes in lightning flashes

The effects of propagation over finitely conducting ground on the features of radiation component of the electric field time derivatives are investigated. The results show that the peak, the half-width and the risetime of the electric field time derivative change significantly in propagating over finitely conducting ground. Furthermore, any correlation that may exist between various parameters could also change significantly due to propagation effects. Consequently, in return stroke model validations using experimentally measured fields, remote sensing of return stroke current time derivatives using measured electric field time derivatives and in the calculation of induced voltages generated by lightning flashes in electrical installations the distortions caused by propagation effects on the electric field time derivatives cannot be neglected.     

Two‐dimensional controlled‐source electromagnetic interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution: spatial sampling aspects

We use numerically modelled data sets to investigate the sensitivity of electromagnetic interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution to spatial receiver sampling. Interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution retrieves the reflection response below the receivers after decomposition of the fields into upward and downward decaying fields and deconvolving the upward decaying field by the downward decaying field. Thereby the medium above the receiver level is replaced with a homogeneous half‐space, the sources are redatumed to the receiver level and the direct field is removed. Consequently, in a marine setting the retrieved reflection response is independent of any effect of the water layer and the air above. A drawback of interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution is a possibly unstable matrix inversion, which is necessary to retrieve the reflection response. Additionally, in order to correctly separate the upward and the downward decaying fields, the electromagnetic fields need to be sampled properly. We show that the largest possible receiver spacing depends on two parameters: the vertical distance between the source and the receivers and the length of the source. The receiver spacing should not exceed the larger of these two parameters. Besides these two parameters, the presence of inhomogeneities close to the receivers may also require a dense receiver sampling. We show that by using the synthetic aperture concept, an elongated source can be created from conventionally acquired data in order to overcome these strict sampling criteria. Finally, we show that interferometry may work under real‐world conditions with random noise and receiver orientation and positioning errors.     

瞬变电磁法的探测深度问题

用解析分析、时域有限差分、时-频分析的方法,以地面中心回线装置和阶跃脉冲激励源为例,分析讨论了瞬变电磁测深法的勘探深度问题,以便为野外勘探工作设计提供依据,达到预期的探测目的.解析计算证实了瞬变场在地下以有限速度传播,数值模拟表示出了准静态条件下瞬变场的反射.研究结果表明,由于时间域电磁场遵循因果律,瞬变电磁法的探测深度主要由观测时间决定. 瞬变电磁场的初始传播速度与大地电阻率无关,继后在大地色散作用下,阶跃脉冲前沿逐渐变得平缓,各频率分量的传播速度与电阻率有关,在低阻地层中探测同样的深度需要较长的观测时间. 最大探测深度是在给定时间内电磁波往返地下某一深度的单程距离,最小探测深度受仪器性能的限制,但是埋藏较浅的异常体也有可能在晚时段被观测到.从时-频密度谱中可得到瞬变电磁场信号时间与频率的关系.     

Electromagnetic response of a buried cylindrical conductor for sheet and line current sources

A major problem in electromagnetic induction studies in regions of localized source fields, such as the auroral and equatorial electrojet regions, is the source effect. Using an analytical model, the electromagnetic response of a buried conducting cylinder to sheet current and line current excitations has been studied for the period rangeT=5 s to 24 h. The validity of the numerical results obtained from the analytical model are compared with the numerical results obtained from a finite difference model. The results show that for periods less than 30 min, there is no significant difference in the response of the cylinder to both source fields. However, significant differences are observed at longer periods. It was also observed that the equivalent height at which a uniform sheet current at 100 km above the earth's surface can be approximated by a line current varies as a function of the source period.     

震前深井电磁短临前兆信息的观测和研究

本文应用大量震例研究了地震前深井电磁波短临前兆信息。研究结果表明，在１．９和２７ｋＨｚ信道上，地震前２－４个月和１０－６０天，可观测到短临型，短期型和临震型三种电磁波信号。电磁信号增强时段与孕震区小震频度增强同步，表明这些信号可能与孕震区微破裂有关。本文还利用信息源偶电体模型定量计算了组成变化的电磁场的准静场，感应场，辐射场随观测距离及方位的变化，据此对观测结构进行了初步解释。     

海底电性源频率域CSEM勘探建模及水深影响分析

为了探索我国海域油气和水合物等高阻目标体CSEM勘探的可行性和方法技术,本文研究了在海水中水平电性源激励下有限水深海洋地电模型的频率域电磁响应,为进一步的1D和3D仿真计算奠定了理论基础.在推导电磁响应公式时,首先给出了各层介质的Lorentz势,然后根据Coulomb势与Lorentz势的关系,得到了各层介质的Coulomb势.各层介质中的电磁场均可以由Lorentz势或者Coulomb势计算得到,但在有限元计算时Coulomb势具有优势.长导线源的电磁场和势函数可以由电偶源的电磁场和势函数沿导线长度积分得到.文中具体给出了海水中水平电偶源和长导线源在海水层的电磁场公式,并根据该公式计算了不同水深环境下海底表面的电磁场分布,分析了海水深度对海底油气储层电磁异常的影响.结果表明,随着水深减小,异常幅度和形态特征发生明显变化.当水深很浅时(如50 m),只有同线方向的E_x和E_z两个电场分量存在明显异常.最后,以两个已知海底油田为例,计算了不同水深环境下可观测到的电场异常,展示了电性源频率域CSEM在海底勘探中(包括浅海环境)的良好应用前景.对于该方法实用化过程中还需进一步解决的问题,文中结尾部分也进行了初步探讨.     

A numerical study of the topographic effect on electromagnetic fields in a three-dimensional conductivity model

Summary The topographic effect on electromagnetic fields in a three-dimensional conductivity model is investigated using a finite-difference numerical method. The model is that of a conducting block buried in the host Earth beneath a conducting hill. The altitude effect as well as the effect of conductivity of the hill has been studied by comparing the results for the field components at the surface of the hill with those at the surface of a flat half-space. The results indicate that both altitude and the hill conductivity influence the behaviour of the electromagnetic fields. For certain traverses beyond the edge of the block, it is seen that the variations in some field components are mainly due to the topographic effect and that the contribution from the block itself is negligible.     

震前深井电磁短临前兆信息的观测和研究

本文应用大量震例研究了地震前深井电磁波短临前兆信息。研究结果表明，在１．９和２７ｋＨｚ信道上，地震前２－４个月和１０－６Ｏ天，可观测到短临型、短期型和临震型三种电磁波信号。电磁信号增强时段与孕震区小震频度增强同步，表明这些信号可能与孕震区微破裂有关。本文还利用信息包源偶全体模型定量计算了组成变化的电磁场的准静场、感应场、辐射场随观测距离及方位的变化，据此对观测结果进行了初步解释。     

The sub-surface magnetic fields produced by a line current source on a non-flat earth

Summary A simple cylindrical model is employed to estimate the effect of non-flatness of the ground on the sub-surface electromagnetic field from a current-carrying cable on the surface. It is shown that, if the surface curvature is sufficiently small, the fields in the cylinder model are very similar to those for the conducting half-space model of the earth employed earlier. The results can be used to provide estimates of expected errors in electromagnetic direction-finding of a buried receiving terminal.The research reported here was supported in part by the Mine Safety Center, U.S. Bureau of Mines.     

Techniques and instrumentation for study of natural electromagnetic induction at sea

Electromagnetic fluctuations in the ocean have external sources above (ionospheric) and below (secular variation of the earth's magnetic field), and internal, purely oceanic sources associated with interaction between water velocity fields and the earth's field. Energy diagrams indicative of the electromagnetic activity in the sea are presented. From the latter, estimates of the resolution required in electromagnetic research at sea can be made. Absolute minima of 1 γ and 0.05 μV/m are necessary for magnetic and electric fields, respectively. Because the ocean shields overhead sources at frequencies above a few hundred c/h and because motional fields have weak signatures, a resolution at least 10 times higher would considerably enhance the scope of such research.The response of electric field instruments to motionally induced fields depends upon whether they are fixed or drifting, but both types respond similarly to fields of external origin.The most stringent limitation to electric field sampling in the sea is the difficulty in achieving low-noise electrical continuity between measuring circuits and sea water. Even the best matched silver—silver chloride electrodes introduce variable electrochemical signals hard to maintain below a millivolt. These mask very low frequency signals unless sophisticated techniques such as electrode switching are used.     

水平分层孔隙介质中点源激发的震电波场数值模拟及分析

为认识地震波诱导的电磁场的特性,本文研究地震波在孔隙介质中由于动电效应引起的电磁场.基于Pride弹性-电磁耦合方程组推导了双力偶震源对应的位移-应力-电磁场间断向量的表达式,模拟了双力偶源激发的震电波场.作为比较,还模拟了爆炸点源激发的震电波场.结果表明：存在伴随纵波的电场,其各分量的波形与固相位移对应分量的波形相似,但相位相反;存在伴随横波的磁场,其波形与固相位移波形相似;双力偶震源还激发出了独立传播的辐射电磁场,其速度比纵波至少高一个数量级,几乎是“瞬间同时”到达了每个接收器,但是其强度比伴随电磁场小得多,且随着源距增大而迅速减小.本文研究还表明：伴随纵波的电场强度不仅与地震纵波幅度和动电耦合系数有关,还与由介质孔隙结构决定的流-固两相动力协调性有关,存在一种动力协调介质,纵波在这种介质中不引起电场.