Nonlinear interaction between astronomical tides and storm surges at wusong tidal station

There are obvious periodic oscillations in the observations of storm surges in the East China Sea. The storm surges are not only controlled by the wind stresses and isolated long wave caused by typhoons but also affected by the interaction between astronomical tides and storm surges. In the present paper we simulate the interaction between tides and storm surges by using a two dimensional numerical model. In our numerical experiments we use the data of the storm surge induced by Typhoon 8114. The calculations tally with the measured data well. The results indicate that the periodic oscillations occurring in the elevations of the surge are mainly caused by the interaction between the tide and the storm surge. The numerical experiments also indicate that the forecasting precision may be notably improved if the nonlinear interaction between tides and storm surges is taken into account.     

PROGRESS OF STUDIES ON THE INTERNAL TIDE GENERATED BY THE PASSAGE OF BAROTROPIC TIDE OVER CONTINENTAL SHELF/SLOPE

Various aspects of studies on internal tides are reviewed .Both beam-like structure and modal structure of internal tides may exist in the ocean . Bottom intensifications are caused by many factors .e.g. upstream blocking , which is the result of nonlinear interaction among waves . The energy may decay very fast so that internal tides are mostly locally generated .Internal tides may have considerable residual currents.In a 3-D frame, numerical study revealed that internal waves may interfere with each other to cause strong motions fer from the generation sources.The mechanism that determines how the lee waves break to form various nonlinear waves such as solitary waves, hydraulic jumps and internal surges or bores remains unclear. Analytic study is difficult , so numerical method may be effective . A radiation condition on the open boundary must be employed. A complete 3-D model may gain interesting result.Study on internal tides in China is limited to field observations and data analysis .     

A preliminary study on the intensity of cold wave storm surges of Laizhou Bay

Dike failure and marine losses are quite prominent in Laizhou Bay during the period of cold wave storm surges because of its open coastline to the north and flat topography. In order to evaluate the intensity of cold wave storm surge, the hindcast of marine elements induced by cold waves in Laizhou Bay from 1985 to 2004 is conducted using a cold wave storm surge–wave coupled model and the joint return period of extreme water level, concomitant wave height, and concomitant wind speed are calculated. A new criterion of cold wave storm surge intensity based on such studies is developed. Considering the frequency of cold wave, this paper introduces a Poisson trivariate compound reconstruction model to calculate the joint return period, which is closer to the reality. By using the newly defined cold wave storm surge intensity, the ‘cold wave grade' in meteorology can better describe the severity of cold wave storm surges and the warning level is well corresponding to different intensities of cold wave storm surges. Therefore, it provides a proper guidance to marine hydrological analysis, disaster prevention and marine structure design in Laizhou Bay.     

Numerical Simulation and Analysis of Storm Surges Under Different Extreme Weather Event and Typhoon Experiments in the South Yellow Sea

In this study,a coupled tide-surge-wave model was developed and applied to the South Yellow Sea.The coupled model simulated the evolution of storm surges and waves caused by extreme weather events,such as tropical cyclones,cold waves,extratropical cyclones coupled with a cold wave,and tropical cyclones coupled with a cold wave.The modeled surge level and significant wave height matched the measured data well.Simulation results of the typhoon with different intensities revealed that the radius to the maximum wind speed of a typhoon with 1.5 times wind speed decreased,and its influence range was farther away from the Jiangsu coastal region;moreover,the impact on surge levels was weakened.Thereafter,eight hypothetical typhoons based on Typhoon Chan-hom were designed to investigate the effects of varying typhoon tracks on the extreme value and spatial distribution of storm surges in the offshore area of Jiangsu Province.The typhoon along path 2 mainly affected the Rudong coast,and the topography of the Rudong coast was conducive to the increase in surge level.Therefore,the typhoon along path 2 induced the largest surge level,which reached up to 2.91 m in the radial sand ridge area.The maximum surge levels in the Haizhou Bay area and the middle straight coastline area reached up to 2.37 and 2.08 m,respectively.In terms of typhoons active in offshore areas,the radial sand ridge area was most likely to be threatened by typhoon-induced storm surges.     

A numerical study of the effects of coastal geometry in the Bohai Sea on storm surges induced by cold-air outbreaks

Strom surges are not only determined by the atmospheric forcing,but also influenced by the coastal geometry and bathymetry.The Bohai Sea,as one of China’s marginal seas,is seriously harmed by storm surges,especially those caused by cold-air outbreaks.As the coastline of the Bohai Sea has changed evidently these years,storm surges may have new characteristics due to the changes in the local geometry.This paper aims to find out these new characteristics by primarily investigating the influence of the changes in the local geometry on storm surges with numerical methods.20 scenarios were constructed based on the track and inten-sity of the cold-air outbreaks to describe the actual situation.By analyzing the model results of the control scenarios,it is found that the main changes of the maximum surge elevation occur in the Bohai Bay and the Laizhou Bay.At the top of the Bohai Bay,the maximum surge elevation is obviously decreased,while in the Laizhou Bay,it is enhanced by the growing Yellow River Delta.This,however,does not suggest that the storm surges in the Laizhou Bay become more serious.A comparison of the risk assessment of storm surges in the Tanggu,Huanghua and Yangjiaogou regions shows that the risk of storm surges in these coastal areas is lightened by the evolvement of the coastal geometry.Particularly near Yangjiaogou,though the maximum surge elevation becomes higher to subject more areas to risk,the risk is still reduced by the evolvement of the Yellow River Delta.     

A three-dimensional nonlinear hydrodynamic model with variable eddy viscosity in shallow seas

Considerable scientific and practical interest exists in ascertaining the dynamic processes in shallow seas. This is especially true for China having a vast area of shallow seas. To simulate the observed data and study the dynamical mechanism of waves and currents in shallow seas a numerical model is developed in this paper. In view of the notable nonlinearity of shallow sea waves and currents, and in order to solve the current distribution in the vertical direction, and to examine the effect of variable eddy viscosity, the model proposed is a three-dimensional nonlinear one with variable eddy viscosity. The eddy viscosity can be considered as a physically acceptable arbitrary function of depth, which is realized in terms of a Sturm-Liouville System. The currents are expressed by using the eigenfunctions satisfying the Sturm-Liouville System just mentioned. A boundary-value problem (or an initio-boundary-value problem) of free surface elevation is derived. And then, the application of the proposed shallow sea model to nonlinear tides, ultra-shallow water storm surges and steady circulation is given, respectively. Finally, a generalized linear law between the bottom friction and the transport is derived. This paper was presented at the Joint Oceanographic Assembly (J.O.A.) held at Halifax, Canada, August 2–13, 1982, and included in “Poster Abstract” Vol. I.     

Long-term variation of storm surge-associated waves in the Bohai Sea

When investigating the long-term variation of wave characteristics as associated with storm surges in the Bohai Sea, the Simulating Waves Nearshore(SWAN) model and ADvanced CIRCulation(ADCIRC) model were coupled to simulate 32 storm surges between 1985 and 2014. This simulation was validated by reproducing three actual wave processes, showing that the simulated significant wave height(SWH) and mean wave period agreed well with the actual measurements. In addition, the long-term variations in SWH, patterns in SWH extremes along the Bohai Sea coast, the 100-year return period SWH extreme distribution, and waves conditional probability distribution were calculated and analyzed. We find that the trend of SWH extremes in most of the coastal stations was negative, among which the largest trend was-0.03 m/a in the western part of Liaodong Bay. From the 100-year return period of the SWH distribution calculated in the Gumbel method, we find that the SWH extremes associated with storm surges decreased gradually from the center of the Bohai Sea to the coast. In addition, the joint probability of wave and surge for the entire Bohai Sea in 100-year return period was determined by the Gumbel logistic method. We therefore, assuming a minimum surge of one meter across the entire Bohai Sea, obtained the spatial SWH distribution. The conclusions of this study are significant for offshore and coastal engineering design.     

Stochastic Model for Estimating Extreme Water Level in Port and Coastal Engineering Design

Extreme water level is an important consideration when designing coastal protection structures. However, frequency analysis recommended by standard codes only considers the annual maximum water level, whereas water levels should actually be regarded as a combination of astronomical tide and storm surge. The two impacting factors are both random variables, and this paper discusses their dependency structures and proposes a new joint probability method to determine extreme design water levels. The lognormal, Gumbel, Weibull, Pearson type 3, traditional maximum entropy, and modified maximum entropy distributions are applied to fit univariate data of astronomical tides and storm surges separately, and the bivariate normal, Gumbel-Hougaard, Frank and Clayton copulas are then utilized to construct their joint probability distributions. To ensure that the new design method is suitable for use with typhoon data, the annual occurrence frequency of typhoon processes is considered and corresponding bivariate compound probability distributions are proposed. Based on maximum water level data obtained from Hengmen hydrological station in the Pearl River Basin, China, these probability models are applied to obtain designs for extreme water levels using the largest sum of the astronomical tide and storm surge obtained under fixed joint return periods. These design values provide an improved approach for determining the necessary height of coastal and offshore structures.     

A numerical study on the generation of a distinct type of nonlinear internal wave packet in the South China Sea

A distinct type of nonlinear internal-wave packet, with the largest internal solitary wave in the middle of the packet, was regularly observed in the South China Sea during the Asian Seas International Acoustics Experiment in 2001. Data analysis shows that the occurrence of the distinct internal wave packet is closely related with the occurrence of lower-high internal tides; the internal tides are mixed in the experimental area and, thus, there is diurnal inequality between the heights of two neighboring internal tides. Modeling of internal tides and internal solitary waves in a shoaling situation suggests that this type of wave packet can be generated in the South China Sea by the large shoaling of internal solitary waves and internal tides. Both the internal solitary waves and the internal tides come from the direction of Luzon Strait. The initial large internal solitary waves contribute to the occurrence of the largest internal solitary wave in the middle of the packet and the waves behind the largest internal solitary wave, while the shoaling internal tides bring about the nonlinear internal waves in front of the largest internal solitary wave via interaction with the local shelf topography.     

Numerieal prediction of storm surge in the Qingdao area under the impact of climate change

A typhoon-induced storm surge simulation system was developed for the Qingdao area, including a typhoon diagnostic model for the generation of wind and pressure fields and a 2D Advanced Circulation (ADCIRC) model for simulating the associated storm surge with a 200 m resolution along the Qingdao coastline. The system was validated by an extreme surge event Typhoon Mamie (8509) and the parameters of Typhoon Mamie were used to investigate the sensitivity of typhoon paths to Qingdao storm surges with four selected paths: the paths of Typhoons Mamie (8509), Opal, 3921 and 2413, the selection being made according to their relative position to Qingdao. Experiments based on the Typhoon Mamie (8509) storm surge were also conducted to study the possible influences of future climate changes, including the sea level rise and sea surface temperature (SST) rise, on storm surges along the Qingdao coast. Storm surge conditions under both present day and future (the end of the 21st century) climate scenarios associated with the four selected paths were simulated. The results show that with the same intensity, when typhoons follow the paths of 3921 and 2413, they would lead to the most serious disasters in different areas of Qingdao. Sea level and SST affect storm surges in different ways: sea level rise affects storm surge mainly through its influence on the tide amplitude, while the increased SST has direct impact on the intensity of the surges. The possible maximum risk of storm surges in 2100 in the Qingdao area caused by typhoons like Mamie (8509) was also estimated in this study.     

Wave-current interaction during Typhoon Nuri (2008) and Hagupit (2008):an application of the coupled ocean-wave modeling system in the northern South China Sea

The northern South China Sea(SCS) is frequently affected by typhoons. During severe storm events, wave-current interactions produce storm surges causing enormous damage in the path of the typhoon. To evaluate the influence of wave-current interactions on storm surge, we used a coupled ocean-atmospherewave-sediment transport(COAWST) modeling system with radiation-stress and vortex-force formulations to simulate two typically intense tropical storms that invaded the SCS, namely Typhoons Nuri(2008) and Hagupit(2008), and compared results with observations from the Hong Kong Observatory. Both radiationstress and vortex-force formulations significantly improved the accuracy of the simulation. Depending on which typhoon and the topography encountered, the influence of surface waves on the oceanic circulation showed different characteristics, including the differences of range and intensity of storm surge between vortex-force and radiation-stress experiments. During typhoon landing, strong sea-surface elevation in concert with wave set-up/set-down caused the adjustment of the momentum balance. In the direction perpendicular to the current, but especially in the cross-shore direction, the pressure gradient and wave effects on the current dominated the momentum balance.     

Validation of an operational forecasting system of sea dike risk in the southern Zhejiang Province,South China

In this study, an operational forecasting system of sea dike risk in the southern Zhejiang Province, South China was developed based on a coupled storm-surge and wave model. This forecasting system is important because of the high cost of storm-surge damage and the need for rapid emergency planning. A comparison with astronomical tides in 2016 and the validation of storm surges and high water marks of 20 typhoons verified that the forecast system has a good simulation ability. The system can forecast relatively realistic water levels and wave heights as shown under the parametric atmospheric forces simulated in a case study; the sea dikes in credible high risk were mainly located in the estuaries, rivers, and around the islands in the southern Zhejiang. Therefore, the forecast system is applicable in the southern Zhejiang with a support to the effective prevention from typhoon storm-surge damage.     

Characteristics Analysis and Risk Assessment of Extreme Water Levels Based on 60-Year Observation Data in Xiamen,China

Extreme water levels are related to astronomical tides and storm surges.Eleven typhoon systems,which have caused extreme water level rises,were selected based on 60-yr water level data from the Xiamen tide gauge station.In these 11 typhoon systems,the astronomical tide component accounts for 71%-95%of the total water level.The Gumbel distribution of extreme water level rise was estimated,and the impact of typhoon surges on water levels during the return period was analyzed.The ex-treme tide levels caused by typhoons Herb(1996)and Dujuan(2015)are much higher than those of other typhoons and correspond to the return period of 76 yr and 71 yr,respectively.The differences of sea levels in the presence and absence of these two typhoons in the 10-100 yr return period are 5.8-11.1 cm.For the 100-yr return period,the total risks within 10,25,50,and 100 yr increase by 94.3%,85.4%,72.9%,and 54.4%,respectively,if the Herb and Dujuan are not considered.Assuming that typhoon Herb(1996)occurred during the highest astronomical tide,it will produce a water level higher than that of the 1000-yr return period.Sea level rise has an important influence on the water level return period,and the contribution of nonlinear sea level rise in the next 100 yr is estimated to be 10.34%.     

A NUMERICAL STUDY OF THE TIDE-SURGE INTERACTION IN THE EAST CHINA SEA AND THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

Nearshore sea levels in the East China Sea(ECS) and the South China Sea(SCS) during tropical cyclones-Typhoon 8007(Joe, 1980) and Typhoon 7209(Betty 1972) were simulated. The tide-surge interactions in the two regions are remarkable and locally produced. The corresponding nonlinear effects were derived from the different nonlinear terms. The contribution of the quadratic friction term is the most important, the shallow term comes second the convective term is the least; the phases of the interactions generated by the various nonlinear terms are asynchronous. Both the quadratic friction and the convective term can stimulate and aggravate the surge structure with more peaks. The bottom friction features have crucial influences on tides and surges, and the interaction is sensitive to the changes of tide and surge.     

Laboratory investigations of earthquake- and landslide-induced composite surges

Seismic surges and landslides are both major secondary mountain hazards during an earthquake. This paper investigates earthquake- and landslide-induced composite surges through large-scale shaking table water tank model experiments. A series of tests were conducted for various initial water depths, peak ground accelerations, slide impact velocities, and slide volumes. Based on the results of the tests, the effects of these parameters on the maximum wave heights of the earthquake- and landslide-induced composite surges were analyzed. An amplification coefficient of seismic surges was defined, and the prediction equation for the amplification coefficient was developed through non-dimensional multiple linear regression analysis. Then, an empirical equation for the maximum wave heights of the composite surges was developed based on the amplification coefficient and Demirel’s method. This equation provides a calculation method for earthquake- and landslide-induced composite surge waves.     

An investigation of the properties of low-frequency internal waves in the northeastern China Seas

A simple and practical method for separating low-frequency internal waves from low-frequency barotropic waves was employed to analyze the observation data. Analysis of some data gathered in the northestern China Seas revealed strong semidiurnal internal tides and near-inertial internal waves at the stations in the East China Sea and near-inertial waves but no semidiurnal internal tides at the station in the centre of the Yellow Sea. The geographic properties of low-frequency internal waves in the region are discussed primarily on the basis of the mechanism of internal tide generation on the continental shelfbreak, and the mechanisms of local generation and global generation. Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China.     

A FVCOM-based unstructured grid wave, current, sediment transport model, I. Model description and validation

An effort was made to couple FVCOM (a three-dimensional (3D),unstructured grid,Finite Volume Coastal Ocean Model) and FVCOM-SWAVE (an unstructured grid,finite-volume surface wave model) for the study of nearshore ocean processes such as tides,circulation,storm surge,waves,sediment transport,and morphological evolution.The coupling between FVCOM and FVCOM-SWAVE was achieved through incorporating 3D radiation stress,wave-current-sediment-related bottom boundary layer,sea surface stress parameterizations,and morphology process.FVCOM also includes a 3D sediment transport module.With accurate fitting of irregular coastlines,the model provides a unique tool to study sediment dynamics in coastal ocean,estuaries,and wetlands where local geometries are characterized by inlets,islands,and intertidal marsh zones.The model was validated by two standard benchmark tests: 1) spectral waves approaching a mild sloping beach and 2) morphological changes of seabed in an idealized tidal inlet.In Test 1,model results were compared with both analytical solutions and laboratory experiments.A further comparison was also made with the structured grid Regional Ocean Model System (ROMS),which provides an insight into the performance of the two models with the same open boundary forcing.     

An Elliptical Wind Field Model of Typhoons

1　Introduction　Thestormsurgeisoneofthemostimportantphe nomenathatendangerthecoastalengineeringfacili ties .Everyyearthereareabout 1 2tropicalcyclonesmakinglandfallatthemainlandofChinafromMaytoOctober (MuandTu ,2 0 0 0 ) .Whentheastronomictideishigh ,the…     

INTERNAL TIDES, SOLITARY WAVES AND BORES IN SHALLOW SEAS

Remote sensing and in situ observations of internal tides, solitary waves and bores in shallow water are briefly reviewed in this paper. The emphasis is laid on interpreting SAR images based on oceanographic measurements, and analyzing characteristics of internal waves in the China Seas. Direc-tions for future research are discussed.     

中国台湾地区海洋负荷潮汐对重力、位移、倾斜和应变固体潮观测的影响

利用最新的由卫星测高数据解算获得的Csr4.0全球海潮模型，中国近海海潮资料和标准地球模型负荷格林函数，采用积分格林函数方法研究了台湾地区10个台站的重力，位移，倾斜和应变固体潮观测中的海潮负荷效应。给出了4个主要潮波（O1，K1，M2，S2）的负荷振幅和相位，研究了负荷应变花分布特征，构制了台北站的负荷时变特征，数值结果说明，台湾地区各台站受海潮影响十分明显，因此在实施重力，位移，倾斜和应变固体潮观测中心必须考虑海潮负荷效应。