New techniques in rock mass classification: application to welded tuffs at the Nevada Yucca Mountain

Summary Many rock mass classification systems exist to assist the engineer in assessing the rock support requirements for underground design. On-going research in this area is directed at attempting to utilize the fractal dimension and the acoustic emission response of the tuffs at the Nevada Yucca Mountain to further aid in rock mass classification. Acoustic emission response is shown to be correlated with the porosity of the sample. Engineering behaviour of the rock varies dramatically with porosity; events and peak amplitude offer a means to distinguish between fracture porosity and pore porosity and consequently the engineering behaviour of the rock. Fractal dimension is used to characterize the roughness of fracture surfaces. Two fractal dimension calculation methods, one based on the semi-variogram for the surface and the other based on the use of dividers, are applied for this purpose. The divider method is shown to resolve deviation from a straight line; the semi-variogram method is shown to identify statistical similarity to various types of noise.Nomenclature D fractal dimension - AE acoustic emission - b b-value determined from log(frequency) against log(amplitude) plots - (h) semi-variogram function - h lag distance for semi-variogram function - H an exponent term related to fractal dimension asD=2 –H     

天然源面波法在西藏扎西康矿区采空区勘察中的应用

天然源面波勘探是从自然界的各种微小振动中提取出瑞雷面波,经过面波频散曲线的反演得到岩层速度结构,达到推测地下岩层和构造分布状况的目的。该方法克服了人工源激发困难的问题,对场地适应性强,有效探测深度较大,探测结果具有分辨率高、抗干扰能力强等特点。文章以扎西康矿区采空区勘察中的应用为例,介绍了天然源面波法特点、优势及应用效果。     

花岗岩与混凝土胶结面抗剪强度的试验研究

坐落在基岩上的重力式建筑物（重力坝、悬索桥的锚碇等）,依靠基岩与大体积混凝土接触面的摩擦力平衡巨大的水压力或锚索拉力。接触面的摩擦系数有很小的变化,需要混凝土的体积发生大的变化保持摩擦力不变,从而工程造价出现大的差别。针对润扬长江公路大桥南汊悬索桥锚碇接触面抗剪强度取值问题,采用室内控制粗糙度试验的方法,测试了不同风化程度和粗糙度的花岗岩与混凝土接触面的抗剪强度。结合现场编录和现场粗糙度测试结果,获得了混凝土与基岩胶结面摩擦角的分区和面积加权平均值,为锚碇的稳定验算提供了准确的数据。试验结果对其它重力式抗滑结构设计有参考价值。     

Radon modelling and the heat transfer surface area of the British hot dry rock geothermal reservoir

A simple thermal model is developed to evaluate the heat exchange surface area of a hot dry rock geothermal reservoir. This model, in conjunction with the Rn model of Andrews and coworkers, is applied to RH12/RH15 system of the British HDR reservoir. Results suggest that although the estimated Rn transfer surface area represents the actual swept surface area, it is between 25 and 45 times larger than the heat transfer surface area. The difference is explained as due to clustering of several fractures within a range of thermal interaction, over the duration of the circulation. It is also shown that the decline in the measured temperatures of circulation fluids since 1985 to the present is consistent with the heat exchange surface area going through a maximum in 1987.     

Searching for the perfect surface area normalizing term—a comparison of BET surface area-, geometric surface area- and mass-normalized dissolution rates of anorthite and biotite

Dissolution rates were calculated for a range of grain sizes of anorthite and biotite dissolved under far from equilibrium conditions at pH 3, T = 20 °C. Dissolution rates were normalized to initial and final BET surface area, geometric surface area, mass and (for biotite only) geometric edge surface area. Constant (within error) dissolution rates were only obtained by normalizing to initial BET surface area for biotite. The normalizing term that gave the smallest variation about the mean for anorthite was initial BET surface area. In field studies, only current (final) surface area is measurable. In this study, final geometric surface area gave the smallest variation for anorthite dissolution rates and final geometric edge surface area for biotite dissolution rates.     

The variogram method for a fractal model of a rock joint surface

The variogram method can be used to make a fractal model of a rock joint surface. However, it has been found that the range of lag satisfying the power law is very small, that is, less than about 10% of the profile length. The cause of this has been investigated mathematically. The main cause of this problem is due to the fact that the profile length is assumed infinite for the theory, but it is finite for the actual calculation. This discrepancy between the actual calculation and the theory yields a significant error and causes the problem when the lag is large. To confirm the validity of this conclusion, it has been demonstrated that the range of lag satisfying the power law increases with an increase in the profile length by applying the variogram method to profiles cut from a long profile. In addition, the range of lag was investigated mathematically and it has been clarified that the range of lag increases with an increase in the fractal dimension. These results suggest that the profile length, the sampling interval and the removal of the linear trend are items to which we must pay attention when we use the variogram method.     

The effects of surface area, grain size and mineralogy on organic matter sedimentation and preservation across the modern Squamish Delta, British Columbia: the potential role of sediment surface area in the formation of petroleum source rocks

Surface sediment samples were collected from the Squamish River Delta, British Columbia, in order to determine the role of sediment surface area in the preservation of organic matter (OM) in a paralic sedimentary environment. The Squamish Delta is an actively prograding delta, located at the head of Howe Sound.Bulk total organic carbon (TOC) values across the Squamish Delta are low, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 wt.%. The carbon/total nitrogen ratio (C_org/N) ranges from 6 to 17, which is attributed to changes in OM type and facies variations. The <25-μm fraction has TOC concentrations up to 2.0 wt.%, and a C_org/N ratio that ranges from 14 to 16. The 53–106-μm fraction has higher TOC concentrations and C_org/N ratios relative to the 25–53-μm fraction. The C_org/N ratio ranges from 9 to 18 in the 53–106-μm fraction and 5.5–10.5 in the 25–53-μm fraction. Surface area values for bulk sediments are low (0.5–3.0 m²/g) due to the large proportion of silt size material. Good correlation between surface area and TOC in bulk samples suggests that OM is adsorbed to mineral surfaces. Similar relationships between surface area and TOC were observed in size-fractionated samples. Mineralogy and elemental composition did not correlate with TOC concentration.The relationships between surface area, TOC and total nitrogen (TN) can be linked to the hydrodynamic and sedimentological conditions of the Squamish Delta. As a result, the Squamish Delta is a useful modern analogue for the formation of petroleum source rocks in ancient deltaic environments, where TOC concentrations are often significantly lower than those in source rocks formed in other geological settings.     

用Monte-Carlo模拟方法评价桥基岩体结构性质

主要介绍了利用Monte-Carlo随机模拟方法确定北盘江大桥桥基岩体的结构性质.岩体的结构性质是控制岩体物理力学性质进而影响岩体稳定性的最关键的因素,对它的研究历来是岩体力学研究的重点.但由于结构面深埋岩体内部,无法直接观测,因而研究起来特别困难.而Monte-Carlo随机模拟方法可根据结构面发育的随机性,并通过对岩体表面结构面的测量,可以很方便地确定岩体结构面三维网络结构,从而揭示岩体的结构性质.从Monte-Carlo随机模拟方法在北盘江大桥桥基岩体中的应用可以看出,这种方法十分有效.     

Life inhabits rocks: clues to rock erosion from electron microscopy of pisolite at a UNESCO heritage site in Brazil

Rock erosion is attracting increasing attention from scientists worldwide. The area encompassing the Saint John Baptist Church, Saint John Village, XVII century ruins in Rio Grande do Sul at the UNESCO World Heritage Site is considered a Brazilian treasure. However, the risk of damage to this site from rock erosion has recently increased tremendously. Generally, the rocky construction such as fence, wall and tomb stone, seems strong but is actually extremely sensitive to erosion caused by lichens, fungi, molds and bacteria. Because of biological erosion and massive exposure, the fresh rock is dominated by clays and microorganisms. Water-adsorbing clays and microorganisms influence the mechanisms of the rock erosion. In this study, the formation of bio-clay-minerals in porous structure of pisolite was demonstrated using electron microscopy. Bacterial clay mineralization can deform the rock structure and even produce organic materials. Biological activity could easily corrode rocky constructions around the Saint John Baptist Church site. The rocks are pisolitic laterites possibly formed in Tertiary over the Kretaceous Parana flood Basalts. Samples inhabited by lichens and fungi were collected from a collapsed wall in the ancient church. The zonal reddish-brown pisolites are 4 mm in diameter in a matrix of clays associated with porous and empty spaces. Elemental distribution maps from X-ray fluorescence microscopy show iron-rich spherules of pisolite, whereas the matrix is composed of Al, Si, Mn, and Sr; thus producing goethite and kaolinite. Transmission electron microscopic observation showed that various types of bacteria inhabit the spherule and are associated with clay minerals and graphite. STEM elemental analysis confirmed the bio-clay-mineralization with Al, Si, S, and Fe, around bacterial cells. The results presented here will improve our understanding of nm-scale bio-mineralization and bio-erosion in lateritic rocks. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

藏北蚕眉山地区火山岩和夷平面的时代

藏北蚕眉山地区发育2个时代的新生代火山岩①上新世的花岗斑岩和流纹斑岩,白云母K-Ar同位素年龄为(3.65±0.31)MaBP.;②中新世的粗面英安岩、粗安岩和玄武粗安岩等火山熔岩,全岩K-Ar同位素年龄为(12.81±0.4)MaBP、(12.85±0.56)MaBP和(14.51±0.23)MaBP。由中新世各火山熔岩体周边的下伏地表高程和非火山岩构成的局部区域最高山岭的顶部高程恢复出火山喷发时的古地表形态,完全可与现代夷平面形态特征相对比。结合火山熔岩下伏地面表层古风化壳的发育,认为蚕眉山地区火山熔岩的下伏地面为古夷平面,本区为古夷平面残留区。     

A new approach to numerical method of modelling geological processes and rock engineering problems — continuum to discontinuum and linearity to nonlinearity

Numerical modelling as an efficient method is widely employed in various fields of science and engineering. In rock mechanics and geomechanics, considerable progress has been made in numerical simulation on nonlinear and discontinuum problems. However, there is a tendency in this field that the theoretical framework for nonlinear and discontinuum problems becomes more and more complicated and sometimes becomes less practicable. This paper gives a brief introduction to a newly developed numerical code, RFPA^2D (rock failure process analysis), which is mathematically a linear and continuum mechanics method for numerically processing nonlinear and discontinuum mechanics problems in rock failure. Although it is simple comparing with other numerical methods for nonlinear and discontinuum problems. It allows one to model the observed evolution of the progressive failure leading to collapse in brittle rocks. An important conclusion from the simulation results is that the microscale heterogeneity is the source of macroscale nonlinearity. Examples showing the potential applications are given in this paper. It can be seen that the RFPA^2D has a unique ability to reveal the evolutionary nature of the fracture phenomenon from microfracture scale to global failure, and the great potential exists in modelling mining induced rockbursts and stability of underground openings in greath depth. The capabilities to handle dilation, self-induced faults or even block movement and rotation should also attract applications in the fields of geomechanics as well as rock mechanics.     

被动源面波法在城市居民区建筑间的应用

城镇中的人文噪声和工业生产对传统的地球物理调查方法（重、磁、电、震）有极大的干扰限制,鉴于此,文章采用抗干扰能力强、受场地条件影响小的被动源面波法在城市居民区进行地下空间勘探的应用。研究结果表明：（1）被动源面波法在城市地区地下空间勘探中是一种有效的物探方法,其施工排列灵活多变,适应性强且不受外界干扰;（2）根据扩展的空间自相关法（ESPAC）处理得到视横波速度剖面能有效地对地下土洞、岩溶破碎带及溶洞等进行响应;（3）结合多条网状测线剖面结果,绘制不同深度的视横波速度水平切片图能有效对地下空间结构进行评价。     

综合物探方法在五里营地区火山岩型铀矿勘查中的应用

火山岩型铀矿床既可以产于火山岩体内,也产于火山岩体附近下古生界浅变质岩和中生界陆相砂砾岩中,因此火山岩体发育情况的探测对铀矿勘查工作的进一步开展具有重要意义.笔者简要介绍了可控源音频大地电磁测量(CSAMT)和地面高精度磁测的工作方法以及在五里营地区的实际应用.结合地质资料和岩石物性特征,利用CSAMT测量资料,大致查明了安山玢岩和粗安斑岩的深部发育特征,利用地面高精度磁测资料提高了识别岩体接触带及断裂构造推测的可靠性.通过钻孔验证,效果较好.综合分析认为:CSAMT测量有较好的垂向分辨力,能够较准确得探测岩体的深部发育特征、断裂发育的位置及向深部延伸情况,地面高精度磁测可大致圈定岩体,识别岩体接触带、断裂等;两种方法相互结合可以较为全面的解决地质问题,为火山型铀矿勘查提供有效技术手段.     

Variation in element release rate from different mineral size fractions from the B horizon of a granitic podzol

Far-from-equilibrium batch dissolution experiments were carried out on the 2000–500, 500–250, 250–53 and 53–2 μm size fractions of the mineral component of the B horizon of a granitic iron humus podzol after removal of organic matter and secondary precipitates. The different size fractions were mineralogically and chemically similar, the main minerals present being quartz, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, biotite and chlorite. Specific surface area increased with decreasing grain size. The measured element release rates decreased in the order 53–2>>>2000–500>500–250>250–53 μm. Surface area normalised element release rates from the 2000–500, 500–250 and 250–53 μm size fractions (0.6–77×10⁻¹⁴ mol/m²/s) were intermediate between literature reported surface area normalised dissolution rates for monomineralic powders of feldspar (0.1–0.01×10⁻¹⁴ mol/m²/s) and sheet silicates (100×10⁻¹⁴ mol/m²/s) dissolving under similar conditions. Element release rates from the 53–2 μm fraction (400–3000×10⁻¹⁴ mol/m²/s) were a factor of 4–30 larger than literature reported values for sheet silicates. The large element release rate of the 53–2 μm fraction means that, despite the small mass fraction of 53–2 μm sized particles present in the soil, dissolution of this fraction is the most important for element release into the soil. A theoretical model predicted similar (within a factor of <2) bulk element release rates for all the mineral powders if observed thicknesses of sheet silicate grains were used as input parameters. Decreasing element release rates with decreasing grain size were only predicted if the thickness of sheet silicates in the powders was held constant. A significantly larger release rate for the 53–2 μm fraction relative to the other size fractions was only predicted if either surface roughness was set several orders of magnitude higher for sheet silicates and several orders of magnitude lower for quartz and feldspars in the 53–2 μm fraction compared to the other size fractions or if the sheet silicate thickness input in the 53–2 μm fraction was set unrealistically low. It is therefore hypothesised that the reason for the unpredicted large release rate from the 52–3 μm size fraction is due to one or more of the following reasons: (1) the greater reactivity of the smaller particles due to surface free energy effects, (2) the lack of proportionality between the BET surface area used to normalise the release rates and the actual reactive surface area of the grains and, (3) the presence of traces quantities of reactive minerals which were undetected in the 53–2 μm fraction but were entirely absent in the coarser fractions.     

比表面积对土冻结特征曲线影响的试验研究EI北大核心CSCD

土冻结特征曲线受土颗粒比表面积的影响显著。目前关于冻结特征曲线与比表面积关系的研究一般以天然土为研究对象,无法完全排除干密度、总含水率等其他因素的干扰,所获得的试验结果较为离散。将青藏粉质黏土和膨润土以不同比例混合,人工配置具有不同比表面积的土样,对土样开展低温核磁共振测试和冻结温度试验,结果表明:与常见的3段式冻结特征曲线不同,混合土样的冻结特征曲线分为4段,即过冷段、快速下降段、缓慢下降段和稳定冻结段。随着比表面积增大,快速下降段中未冻水含量变化幅值减小,缓慢下降段中未冻水含量变化率增大,而稳定冻结段中最终未冻水含量增多;在冻结温度试验获得的温度-时间曲线中,恒温段持续时间随比表面积的增大而缩短,相应的冻结温度则降低;通过分析横向弛豫时间T_(2)分布曲线随温度变化的规律,发现比表面积大的土样结合水相对含量高,而结合水受土颗粒束缚作用强、冻结温度低,从而导致比表面积大的土样难以冻结。这是比表面积对冻结特征曲线产生影响的根本原因。     

主-被动源地震面波勘探方法在岩溶区浅覆盖层探测中的应用

采用主-被动源地震面波勘探方法,对桂林市兴安县典型浅覆盖层实验区三维地质结构进行探测研究。结合主-被动源面波数据提取的频散曲线,拓宽了频带,提升了低频信号的分辨率。实验结果显示,测区内地下介质横波速度值范围为161.5~519.5 m/s, 根据速度值的差异将实验区地下介质大致分为4个层位,第一层速度范围为161.5~281 m/s, 第二层速度范围为281~360.5 m/s, 第三层速度范围为360.5~400.2 m/s, 第四层速度范围为400.2~519.5 m/s。结合钻孔资料,对应的第一层岩性为粘土层,第二层为粉砂质粘土,第三层为细砂-砂砾岩,第四层为灰岩,且局部土洞、溶洞等构造发育。研究结果表明,瑞雷面波勘探方法能够较准确地刻划浅覆盖层地下介质土层厚度、结构分布及土层与基岩面接触带起伏形态。     

西藏鸡公村钼矿区中酸性岩体的时代、岩石地球化学特征及构造背景

鸡公村钼矿位于冈底斯下察隅晚燕山—喜山期岩浆弧带南缘。文中以矿区广泛分布的中酸性岩体为研究对象,从野外地质调查、岩石学、LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb定年、岩石地球化学成分特征等方面对其进行了系统的探讨。研究结果显示：鸡公村中酸性岩体的岩石类型主要为石英闪长岩和少量的花岗闪长岩;中酸性岩体的LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄为(51.8±0.5) Ma,表明其形成于始新世(E2)时期;中酸性岩具低K(w(K2O)为1.66%~2.44%)、高Na(w(Na2O)为3.58%~4.06%)的特点,属钙碱性高钾钙碱性系列,具准铝质弱过铝质的特征;稀土总量(ΣREE)变化范围较大((53.6~117)×10-6),稀土元素配分模式表现为轻稀土富集的右倾斜型,其(La/Yb)N值为3.90~7.31,铈、铕异常不明显(Ce/Ce*=0.92~1.17,Eu/Eu*=0.96~1.15);微量元素比值蛛网图上显示出Rb、Th、U、K等元素的正异常和Ba、Nb、Ta、P、Ti等元素的负异常;鸡公村中酸性岩属I型花岗岩,是变玄武岩质下地壳部分熔融的产物;鸡公村中酸性岩体形成于印度欧亚板块俯冲碰撞环境,起源于地壳加厚导致的源区物质的部分熔融。     

基于地面三维激光扫描的三峡库区危岩体监测

三峡水库周期性蓄水改变了岸坡内的地下水渗流场和应力场,降低岩土体的剪切强度,对库岸边坡、岩体稳定性影响很大。以往库区岸坡岩体形变监测主要通过设置固定点进行观测,难以发现岩体整体变化情况。地面三维激光扫描方法能获取岩体整体表面厘米精度的点云数据,具有无需接触目标、获取速度快、精度高等特点,非常适合库区高陡危岩体表面三维形变监测。以巫山箭穿洞危岩体为例,采用地面三维激光扫描方法对箭穿洞危岩体进行了为期2年（2017—2018年）共3期监测,以第一期观测目标周围稳定岩体数据为基准,对数据进行重叠点云迭代配准,点云配准精度优于±2.7 cm。针对箭穿洞危岩体在观测时段内的变化情况,构建危岩体区域的基准不规则三角网模型,以点到基准面最近距离法结合危岩体变化区间分析其变形。通过对比分析箭穿洞危岩体3期观测数据,发现相对于2017年,2018年箭穿洞危岩体左侧岩体有变形趋势;在库区蓄水阶段,危岩体局部多处存在明显凹陷变化,局部因蓄水影响发生约−0.03～−0.07 m变形。结果证明三维激光扫描技术在库岸高陡边坡形变监测中的有效性,为三峡库区高陡危岩体形变监测及地质灾害防治工作提供了参考。     

昆明呈贡石灰岩上覆红黏土干缩裂隙的温度效应

温度是影响土体干缩开裂的重要外部环境因素之一。为研究温度对红黏土干缩裂隙的影响,以昆明呈贡石灰岩上覆红黏土为对象,经风干、碾碎和筛分后,选取2 mm以下的细颗粒,用正方形钢化玻璃容器制备9个厚度为10 mm的饱和泥浆样,分成3组,每组3个平行样,利用控温烘箱分别进行30℃、50℃和70℃的干燥试验,试验过程中定时称重试样和对土样表面进行拍照,然后用PCAS软件对照片进行图像处理。结果表明：红黏土的蒸发过程可分为3个阶段,干缩裂隙的形成和发展可分为5个阶段;温度升高,干燥完成时间减短,常速率阶段的蒸发速率和蒸发量增大,最终含水率降低;初始临界含水率随温度升高而增大;随着土体含水率持续减小,表面裂隙率先缓慢增加,然后快速增大,最后趋于稳定;温度升高,裂隙交点数、裂隙条数、裂隙总长度和土块数减少,裂隙平均长度、裂隙平均宽度、表面裂隙率、土块平均面积、土块最大面积、干缩厚度和干密度增大。温度显著影响红黏土的水分蒸发过程,干缩裂隙的形成和发展,以及表面裂隙结构和形态。     

Spatial and temporal variability of surface water and groundwater before and after the remediation of a Portuguese uranium mine area

The old Senhora das Fontes uranium mine, in central Portugal, consists of quartz veins which penetrated along fracture shear zones at the contact between graphite schist and orthogneiss. The mine was exploited underground until a depth of 90 m and was closed down in 1971. The ores from this mine and two others were treated in the mine area by the heap-leach process which ended in 1982. Seven dumps containing a total of about 33,800 m³ of material and partially covered by natural vegetation were left in the mine area. A remediation process took place from May 2010 to January 2011. The material deposited in dumps was relocated and covered with erosion resisting covers. Surface water and groundwater were collected in the wet season just before the remediation, in the following season at the beginning of the remediation and also after the remediation in the following dry season. Before, at the beginning and after the remediation, surface water and groundwater have an acid-to-alkaline pH, which decreased with the remediation, whereas Eh increased. In general, before the remediation, uranium concentration was up to 83 μg/L in surface water and up to 116 μg/L in groundwater, whereas at the beginning of the remediation it increases up to 183 μg/L and 272 μg/L in the former and the latter, respectively, due to the remobilization of mine dumps and pyrite and chalcopyrite exposures, responsible for the pH decrease. In general, after the remediation, the U concentration decreased significantly in surface water and groundwater at the north part of the mine area, but increased in both, particularly in the latter up to 774 μg/L in the south and southwest parts of this area, attributed to the remobilization of sulphides that caused mobilization of metals and arsenic which migrated to the groundwater flow. Uranium is adsorbed in clay minerals, but also in goethite as indicated by the geochemical modelling. After the remediation, the saturation indices of oxyhydroxides decrease as pH decreases. The remediation also caused decrease in Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cu, As, Sr and Mn concentrations of surface water and groundwater, particularly in the north part of the mine area, which is supported by the speciation modelling that shows the decrease of most dissolved bivalent species. However, in general, after the remediation, Th, Cd, Al, Li, Pb, Sr and As concentrations increased in groundwater and surface water at south and southwest of the mine area. Before and after the remediation, surface water and groundwater are contaminated in U, Cd, Cr, Al, Mn, Ni, Pb, Cu and As. Remediation caused only some improvement at north of the mine area, because at south and southwest part, after the remediation, the groundwater is more contaminated than before the remediation.