The Effect of Fluid Content on the Mechanical Behaviour of Fractures in Chalk

Summary ?The paper presents an experimental study on the effects of fluid content on the mechanical behaviour of natural fractures in chalk. The aims of the study are to provide better understanding of the mechanisms of chalk-fluid interaction, in general, and to explain the behaviour of petroleum chalk reservoirs during water injection, in particular. The experiments were carried out on L?gerdorf chalk using the direct shear apparatus. Two types of fluids were used in the tests: 1) water, and 2) synthetic oil. L?gerdorf chalk is a water-wet material which will develop capillary pressures upon contact with water. Initially saturating the chalk with oil will enhance the water wettability by inducing additional capillary forces between water and the non-wetting oil. In addition to the tests on fractured chalk samples, unconfined compression and direct shear tests on intact chalk samples were performed. The results showed significant differences in the strength and deformation characteristics of intact chalk initially saturated with different fluids. Intact water-saturated chalk showed lower deformation modulus (about 50%) and lower peak (also about 50%) and residual shear strength than the oil-saturated chalk. Water injection in initially oil-saturated fractures resulted in significant normal deformation under constant effective normal stress and shear stress relaxation under fixed shear displacement. The water-induced deformation occurred almost instantaneously after only a few cm³ of water had been injected into the fracture, and further injection of water did not increase the water-induced deformation. After water injection, fractures in initially oil-saturated chalk showed significantly lower normal and shear stiffnesses and lower shear strength. The weakening in shear is attributed partly to the reduction in the basic friction angle, φ_b, and this reduction was verified in a series of tilt tests to measure the frictional resistance between smooth edges of core samples of chalk. The reduction in the basic friction angle implies that the interaction of chalk with water is governed not only by capillary forces, as postulated in several previous studies, but also by chemical and/or physio-chemical effects.     

高含水率疏浚淤泥新型复合固化材料试验研究

基于传统水泥固化处理方法,提出了水泥-生石灰-高分子添加剂新型复合固化材料处理高含水率疏浚淤泥的新方法,以期快速降低淤泥含水率并提高固化淤泥的无侧限抗压强度,拓展水泥固化淤泥的含水率范围,达到高效廉价固化处理高含水率疏浚淤泥的目的。通过系列室内试验,探讨了该方法处理后高含水率淤泥的无侧限抗压强度变化规律以及各材料掺入比对强度的影响规律。研究结果表明,水泥掺入比低于7%的新型固化材料处理初始含水率2倍液限的高液限淤泥,早期强度大于0.5 MPa,28 d强度大于1 MPa;固化淤泥强度随龄期、水泥和生石灰掺入比的增大而增大;给出了考虑多因素多水平的无侧限抗压强度预测公式,预测值与实测值基本一致     

Water effects on rock strength and stiffness degradation

Reduction in strength and stiffness in rocks attributed to an increase in water content has been extensively researched on a large variety of rock types over the past decades. Due to the considerable variations of texture and lithology, the extent of water-weakening effect is highly varied among different rock types, spanning from nearly negligible in quartzite to 90 % of uniaxial compressive strength reduction in shale. Readers, however, often face difficulties in comparing the data published in different sources due to the discrepancy of experimental procedures of obtaining the water saturation state and how the raw laboratory data is interpreted. In view of this, the present paper first reviews the terminologies commonly used to quantify the amount of water stored in rocks. The second part of the paper reviews the water-weakening effects on rock strengths, particularly focusing on uniaxial compressive strength and modulus, as well as tensile strength, under quasi-static loading and dynamic loading. The correlation relationships established among various parameters, including porosity, density and fabric of rocks, and external factors such as strain rate, surface tension and dielectric constant of the saturating liquid, absorption percentage and suction pressure, are reviewed and presented toward the end of the paper.     

川西北茂县群千枚岩各向异性力学特性

利用MTS815Teststar岩石力学试验系统,对川西北茂县群千枚岩开展单轴和三轴试验,研究千枚岩各向异性力学特性。研究结果表明：千枚岩在达到峰值强度50%以前就普遍出现很大的变形和局部破坏,表明围岩产生大变形或出现早期扩容并不意味着其丧失承载能力,如及时进行针对性支护或加强围岩保护仍具有较强的强度。损伤扩容是千枚岩变形破坏的典型特征,并对变形产生不同的影响,横向应变对损伤扩容比轴向应变更敏感,能更灵敏地反映岩石材料内部的屈服、弱化。千枚岩各向异性随含水率与围压水平表现出不同的变化规律,强度各向异性随含水率和围压水平提高而降低,弹性模量和泊松比则与加载方向和转化围压有关。不同含水状态下干燥千枚岩的单轴抗压强度各向异性最为显著,大部分千枚岩的强度各向异性率在0.80以下,其中绢云母千枚岩最强,为0.48,其强弱对比依次为绢云母千枚岩、绿泥石千枚岩、石英千枚岩、炭质千枚岩。千枚岩表现出不同的破坏模式,并随围压或含水率的增加而变化;剪切机制单独控制着各向异性力学特性,千枚岩统一沿软弱面剪切破坏。     

干湿循环条件下煤矿砂岩分离式霍普金森压杆试验研究

由于降雨、季节引起地下水位升降等原因,地壳中岩体常处于干湿循环状态。为研究干湿循环对岩石动态力学性能的影响,以安徽恒源煤矿北风井-259 m处砂岩为研究对象,采用?50 mm变截面分离式霍普金森压杆试验装置,对长径比为0.5的煤矿砂岩试件经干湿循环作用后实施单轴冲击压缩试验,获得了砂岩动态单轴压缩应力-应变曲线。研究发现,由于自由水的Stefan效应,干湿循环1次对砂岩具有增强作用,单轴动态抗压强度最高;其后,随着干湿循环次数的增加,砂岩受水侵蚀物理弱化作用,砂岩动态单轴抗压强度呈乘幂关系降低,砂岩试件的冲击破碎块度逐渐变小。试验结果表明,干湿循环12次时砂岩动态抗压强度比干湿循环1次降低约24%,表现出较强的劣化效应。     

Effect of groundwater and sea weathering cycles on the strength of chalk rock from unstable coastal cliffs of NW France

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the role of groundwater and sea weathering on the strength of the chalk rocks exposed on the coastline of the English Channel in Normandy, NW France. We present a study of the rock strength variations of three representative chalk units (Lewes Chalk, Seaford Chalk and Newhaven Chalk) exposed at various locations on the coastal chalk cliffs. The combination of UCS tests and SEM observations have been used (1) on dry natural chalk samples, (2) on chalk samples at various moisture contents, (3) on dry chalk samples submitted to a 10-day cycle of alternating wetting and drying by distilled water and by sea water. Dry chalk samples show low UCS strength (3.46–4 MPa) indicative of very weak rocks. When chalk samples are submitted to progressive water wetting, they present a decrease of UCS strength and Young's modulus of 40% to 50%. This behaviour begins at low values of water content within the chalk, i.e., for a degree of water saturation ranging between 10% and 17%. When chalk samples are submitted to an artificial weathering cycle with distilled water, a decrease in strength is observed, whereas the Young's modulus increases. SEM observations indicate the occurrence of microcracks and particle aggregates in the sample. When chalk samples are submitted to an artificial weathering with sea water, the decrease of UCS strength and Young's modulus achieves a minimum. SEM observations indicate salt crystals within the chalk. On the coastal cliffs of NW France, weathering processes depend both on chalk lithology, which show a range of sensitivity to weathering and on the location of the chalk in the coastal area. Processes allied to the degree of weathering (e.g., salt crystallisation or fresh water disaggregation) differ in the chalk massif, on the cliff face and on the shore platform.     

用似水灰比对水泥土无侧限抗压强度的预测

对以连云港地区的海相软土为原料的水泥土进行了一系列物理、强度试验,分析了含水量、水泥用量和龄期对水泥土强度的影响,提出了似水灰比的概念用于水泥土强度的预测。采用提出的水泥土强度预测公式,根据某一似水灰比、龄期28 d某种的水泥土室内试验强度,可以预测不同含水量、不同水泥用量和不同龄期的水泥土室内试验强度。通过比较分析发现,得出水泥土强度预测公式可以很好地应用于其他研究者已经发表的水泥土试验数据,进一步验证了所提出的强度预测公式的有效性。     

活性MgO−粉煤灰固化淤泥耐久性研究

将绿色环保活性MgO?粉煤灰材料引入淤泥固化,采用系列室内模拟试验,深入研究冻融、浸水和干湿等复杂气候环境下活性MgO?粉煤灰固化淤泥试样的外观形貌和强度特征,明确外界环境干扰诱使固化淤泥性能演化的内在规律。结果表明：活性MgO?粉煤灰固化淤泥具有良好的抗冻融、抗干湿及水稳性,且活性MgO?粉煤灰掺量及MgO/粉煤灰配比提高可进一步改善活性MgO?粉煤灰固化淤泥试样的耐久性能。冻融、浸水和干湿等复杂环境显著劣化固化淤泥抗压强度,其强度水平均低于同龄期标准养护试样。固化淤泥试样无侧限抗压强度随冻融循环次数增加而逐渐降低,随浸水时间增加先降低后趋于稳定,随干湿循环次数增加呈降低的趋势。基于所得试验结果,提出了活性MgO?粉煤灰固化淤泥耐久性演变的内在微观机制模型。     

Mechanical Behaviour of Reservoir Rock Under Brine Saturation

Acoustic emissions (AE) and stress–strain curve analysis are well accepted ways of analysing crack propagation and monitoring the various failure stages (such as crack closure, crack initiation level during rock failure under compression) of rocks and rock-like materials. This paper presents details and results of experimental investigations conducted for characterizing the brittle failure processes induced in a rock due to monocyclic uniaxial compression on loading of two types of sandstone core samples saturated in NaCl brines of varying concentration (0, 2, 5, 10 and 15 % NaCl by weight). The two types of sandstone samples were saturated under vacuum for more than 45 days with the respective pore fluid to allow them to interact with the rocks. It was observed that the uniaxial compressive strength and stress–strain behaviour of the rock specimens changed with increasing NaCl concentration in the saturating fluid. The acoustic emission patterns also varied considerably for increasing ionic strength of the saturating brines. These observations can be attributed to the deposition of NaCl crystals in the rock’s pore spaces as well some minor geo-chemical interactions between the rock minerals and the brine. The AE pattern variations could also be partly related to the higher conductivity of the ionic strength of the high-NaCl concentration brine as it is able to transfer more acoustic energy from the cracks to the AE sensors.     

黄土初始结构性对其压缩屈服的影响

黄土是一种典型的具有结构强度的欠压密土,其特殊的结构性会使黄土的压缩曲线出现类似超固结土的明显转折点（对应的压力称为结构压缩屈服应力）。为分析黄土的初始结构性对其压缩屈服的影响,对6个场地的黄土进行了侧限压缩试验及单轴抗压强度试验,分别得到了各个场地不同含水率黄土的压缩屈服应力和构度指标。研究表明：黄土的构度指标与压缩屈服应力均随含水率的增大而减小,同时随含水率的增大,构度变化幅度小的黄土,其压缩屈服应力变化幅度也小;沉积时代相同的黄土,构度越大,其压缩屈服应力越大,两者呈线性关系;黄土的沉积时代不同,其构度与压缩屈服应力的线性关系就不同。分别给出了Q3、Q2黄土的构度与压缩屈服应力的线性关系式,并通过实例初步验证了此线性关系的适用性,为以构度为桥梁,利用简便易得的物理指标计算压缩屈服应力提供了一种途径。     

大掺量粉煤灰淤泥固化土的强度与耐久性研究

基于传统水泥和石灰固化处理方法,提出了利用大掺量低钙粉煤灰、水泥和石灰固化剂进行淤泥固化处理的方法,以期改善淤泥的强度和耐久性,达到淤泥和粉煤灰双重资源化利用的目的。通过一系列室内试验,探讨了该方法处理后固化淤泥的击实特征、强度特性、水稳性和耐久性。试验结果表明：淤泥固化后最优含水率有所降低、最大干密度则略有增加;弹性模量、无侧限抗压强度和抗拉强度均有不同程度的增加,水泥掺量越大,养护时间越长,强度和弹性模量越大;固化后淤泥水稳性得到明显改善;浸水软化和冻融循环导致固化土抗压强度显著劣化,冻胀融缩导致设计混合料的无侧限抗压强度减小约22%。     

青藏公路沿线通信光缆埋设地段冻土工程地质条件及评价

青藏公路沿线季节冻土和多年冻土的总长度为７６０ｋｍ，根据气温冻结指数和融化指数可估算最大季节冻结深度和最大季节融化深度。根据含水量划分出５种冻土类型和５个冻胀敏感性等级。提出了光缆埋设若干选线和施工建议。     

氯盐对水泥固化土应力应变特性影响分析

以人工制备的方法配制了不同氯盐含量的土样,并掺入不同含量的普通硅酸盐水泥对其进行固化处理。采用无侧限抗压强度试验对氯盐含量对水泥固化土的应力应变特征影响规律进行分析。试验结果表明:随着氯盐含量的增加,水泥固化土的无侧限抗压强度和变形模量降低,破坏应变随之增大,应力-应变关系曲线由脆性破坏向塑性破坏转化; 增加水泥用量可以减缓氯盐对水泥固化土的不良影响; 但水泥固化土变形模量与无侧限抗压强度的比值与氯盐含盐量大小无明显关系。     

Ion association in concentrated NaCl brines from ambient to supercritical conditions: results from classical molecular dynamics simulations

Highly concentrated NaCl brines are important geothermal fluids; chloride complexation of metals in such brines increases the solubility of minerals and plays a fundamental role in the genesis of hydrothermal ore deposits. There is experimental evidence that the molecular nature of the NaCl–water system changes over the pressure–temperature range of the Earth's crust. A transition of concentrated NaCl–H₂O brines to a "hydrous molten salt" at high P and T has been argued to stabilize an aqueous fluid phase in the deep crust.     

安哥拉Quelo砂抗剪强度特性试验研究

基于安哥拉Quelo（Muceque）砂原状土和重塑土的直剪试验,探讨了结构性、含水率、干密度对Quelo砂抗剪强度的影响。试验结果表明,结构性对Quelo砂的抗剪强度影响较为复杂,原状土与重塑土的抗剪力学指标具有明显差异;Quelo砂遇水软化特性显著,原状土和重塑土的黏聚力和内摩擦角随含水率的增大近似呈对数衰减;Quelo砂级配良好,压实后抗剪强度高,适宜用作回填材料,重塑土的黏聚力随干密度的增大近似呈线性增大,内摩擦角随干密度的增大分为稳定段和增大段,呈分段函数的特征。     

试件形状对冻结粉土抗压强度影响的试验研究

在不同温度和应变率条件下,分别对圆柱体和正方体冻结粉土进行了单轴抗压强度试验,分析比较了二者的应力-应变关系、抗压强度及破坏应变.结果发现:单轴压缩下正方体与圆柱体冻结粉土的力学性质存在差异.正方体冻结粉土的应力-应变曲线有明显的弹性屈服点,屈服点后曲线呈线性硬化,而圆柱体冻结粉土的应力-应变曲线无明显弹性屈服,全应力-应变曲线呈抛物线型.相同温度和应变率条件下,圆柱体试样的应变软化程度比正方体试样大.相同试验条件下正方体冻结粉土的抗压强度及破坏应变大于圆柱体的抗压强度和破坏应变,二者抗压强度及破坏应变的差异程度与温度和应变率无关.研究结果可为冻结壁的设计提供重要依据和参考.     

水泥-磷石膏双掺固化处理高含水率疏浚淤泥试验研究

在传统水泥固化处理方法的基础上,提出用水泥-磷石膏双掺固化处理高含水率疏浚淤泥的方法,以期达到以废治废,将废弃高含水率疏浚淤泥经济合理转化为良质土资源的目的。系列室内试验的结果表明,磷石膏对疏浚淤泥固化土的增强效果显著,并存在一最佳掺量,最佳掺量随淤泥初始含水率增大而增大,水泥-磷石膏双掺固化土的应力-应变曲线表明,其破坏应变一般在2%～3%左右,变形系数E50与抗压强度近似呈线性递增关系。     

非饱和压实黄土结构特性试验研究

对增（减）湿到相同含水率及相同干密度的不同结构性非饱和压实黄土进行土-水特征曲线试验和三轴剪切试验,研究制样含水率引起的结构变化对非饱和压实黄土基质吸力、应力-应变特征及结构性参数的影响。研究结果表明：制样含水率引起的结构性对非饱和压实黄土的土-水特征曲线有明显的影响,小于塑限时基质吸力随制样含水率的增大而增大,最优制样含水率时非饱和压实黄土具有均匀小孔隙的团粒凝聚结构使其吸力相对最大;应力-应变曲线在最优结构状态时位于坐标最上端,小于最优制样含水率时的结构弱化程度相对较低,其应力-应变曲线逐渐下移,大于最优制样含水率时土样的结构弱化程度较高,其应力-应变曲线位于最下端;定义的结构性参数m?r能够合理反映压实黄土的结构性,弥补了压实土工程中用最优含水率和最大干密度指标无法反映土结构性影响的不足;屈服结构性参数m?r0能够合理反映出不同制样含水率压实黄土的结构弱化程度,结构弱化程度还反映在三轴剪切破坏强度上。     

弱化节理剪切力学特征的颗粒流模拟研究

在黏结颗粒模型中引入强度弱化因子生成弱化介质材料,进行弱化模型试件的单轴抗压强度试验。结果表明,弱化作用在降低试件单轴抗压强度的同时,还将导致试件弹性模量逐步下降。这一结果符合相关室内试验的研究成果。为进一步对岩石强度弱化模拟方法进行效果检验,利用颗粒流程序内置的FISH语言建立弱化岩石节理直剪试验模型,进行不同法向应力条件下弱化岩石节理的直剪试验。结果表明：弱化节理模型试件表现出类似于真实节理的一系列宏观剪切力学特征;不同壁面弱化程度条件下,节理模型试件的抗剪强度及剪切峰值膨胀角的试验结果与法向应力的依存关系均符合经典的JRC-JCS模型。由此表明,所采用的岩石强度弱化模拟方法可以较好地再现岩石介质的强度弱化效应。通过模型试件内微裂纹发展演化特征的研究表明,壁面弱化作用可导致试件内裂纹发育数目的快速增长、微裂纹分布范围的迅速扩大,以及剪切裂纹发育比例的迅速提高,由此从细观角度揭示了弱化节理面更易于产生宏观剪切破坏的原因。研究成果可以为弱化岩石节理的抗剪强度及大型岩质边坡的稳定性研究提供参考。     

Sub-sea-floor metamorphism,heat and mass transfer; an additional comment

Attention is drawn to the fact that the warm geothermal brines of Matupi Harbour (New Britain) are of sea water origin, contain amounts of total dissolved solids comparable to those in sea water, but are remarkably enriched in heavy metals (Ferguson and Lambert, 1972). This evidence supports the proposal that metal enriched brines, of sea water origin, may be generated in sub-sea-floor geothermal systems by a high temperature leaching process, and may form a metal enriched sedimentary component on discharge back into sea water (Spooner and Fyfe, 1973).The chloride contents of the Matupi Harbour brines are low, relative to other known hydrothermal solutions which carry comparable amounts of heavy metals in solution. This evidence indicates that high dissolved chloride contents of the order of 160000 ppm, compared with sea water which contains 19800 ppm, are not a prerequisite for a high metal carrying capacity in natural brines.