Uniaxial strength testing of non-welded Calico Hills tuff, Yucca Mountain, Nevada

A detailed investigation of the strength properties of Calico Hills tuff was undertaken to further characterize the behavior of this unit. Uniaxial compression tests on 43 specimens of massive and reworked tuff show a dependence of peak strength and Young's modulus on the total porosity, and thereby on the geologic history of the Calico Hills tuff. The average Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and compressive (peak) strength of dry specimens of massive (and reworked) tuff are: 5.43±0.96 GPa (9.80±0.89 GPa), 0.194±0.052 (0.244±0.067), and 26.34±5.13 MPa (38.64±4.96 MPa). Wet specimens of massive tuff have compressive strengths of 15.34±0.70 MPa, lower than those of dry specimens. The post-peak region for this brittle tuff is characterized by rapid load drops and well-defined residual strengths associated with growth of macrocracks and small faults in the specimens.     

灰岩隧道掘进机隧道点荷载试验评价岩石强度方法的研究与探讨

使用隧道掘进机（TBM）开挖隧道时刀盘和盾体阻碍了对岩石状态的观察,这时可使用岩渣对岩石条件进行预测和评价。从滚刀破碎掌子面产生的岩渣中选取块状岩石进行点荷载试验可以获得岩石强度,但是受过滚刀损伤作用的岩石强度值与未受损伤的岩石强度值之间的关系尚不明确。从吉林引松供水工程TBM破岩产生的岩渣中挑选块状试样进行点荷载试验,同时在产生岩渣的相应位置钻取岩芯获取点荷载强度,与单轴抗压强度进行了对比,记录了取样地点地质状态、试样的尺寸、破碎状态以及等效断裂面积。结果表明：岩渣中的岩块受到滚刀作用产生的损伤强度值有所下降,为完整取芯试样的63.25%,原岩越完整受损程度越大;灰岩点荷载强度换算岩石单轴抗压强度系数约为25.3,直接使用岩渣时建议系数约为42.1;峰值荷载与等效断裂面积成正比;尺寸过大的试块往往与岩体原有裂隙有关,强度极低,不适宜用作点荷载试验。研究结果为TBM隧道现场快速获取岩石强度参数提供了方法和依据。     

Mechanical behavior and microstructural variation of loess under dynamic compaction

The laboratory dynamic compaction test was used to study the effects of dynamic impact loads on the shear strength characteristics of loess. Loess specimens were compacted by different numbers of blows and their shear strengths measured. The experimental results revealed that the shear strength varies in stages with the number of blows. During the initial stage, the shear strength increases with the number of blows. It reaches a peak value and then decreases with the number of blows. To reveal the relationship between this alternation in shear strength and microstructural variation, quantitative microstructural analyses were performed on some tested specimens at different stages of strength evolution. This microstructural study demonstrated that the variation of shear strength is directly related to the alteration of microstructure. It is concluded that the shear strength of loess is basically controlled by its microstructural state. Growing particle size heterogeneity, varying particle orientations and increasing microstructural damage are the main causes of the alternation of shear strength.     

The Effect of Relative Density and Confining Stress on Shear Properties of Sands with Varying Grading

The research investigated the influence of grain size distribution on the shear behavior of sand specimen in loose, medium and dense states. The investigation aimed at understanding the extent or degree at which static shear strength of soil is affected by its density. A standard indicator (coefficient of uniformity) was used in constituting four (4) different sand specimens—narrowly graded (NAG), intermediately graded (ING), well graded (WG) and gap graded (GAG). Different normal stress values were applied during the testing program. The specimens were sheared using a ring shear apparatus until a residual value of shear stress was obtained. Result obtained from the analysis shows two remarkable stress paths. Medium dense to dense specimens show dilative stress path while loose (less dense) specimens show contractive stress path. At loose state, WG specimens show higher peak and residual shear strengths than poorly graded ones. Of importance was the fact that all the NAG specimens underwent complete liquefaction but WG specimens did not undergo complete liquefaction. This was interpreted as strong inter-particle contacts/forces binding the grains which enhanced high shear resistance. The research also showed that increase in relative density leads to higher shear strength, particle size distribution notwithstanding. Also, result of the analysis showed that WG specimens in medium-and dense states have higher peak but lower residual strength than ING and NAG specimens-this phenomenon was termed reverse behavior by the author(s). GAG specimens when sheared have the lowest peak and residual strength at any given value of relative density.     

Yielding of Silt at High Temperature and Suction Magnitudes

This study presents an evaluation of yielding mechanisms for unsaturated, compacted silt using drained triaxial compression tests with control of elevated temperatures and high suction magnitudes. After anisotropic compression, some compacted silt specimens were heated by approximately 40 °C before a suction of approximately 300 MPa was applied, while others were heated after suction application. A frictional response was observed for the specimens sheared under high suction magnitudes, in the form of a consistent increase in peak shear strength with increasing net confining stress. An effective stress analysis was used to evaluate the trends in the peak shear stress and the role of stress history for the different specimens. A single peak failure envelope was observed when the shear strength data was interpreted in terms of the mean effective stress. Changes in preconsolidation stress were estimated by identifying the intersections between a thermo-elasto-plastic yield function and the experimental peak shear strength values. Soil specimens heated before application of high suction values had lower peak shear strengths than reference specimens at high suction and ambient temperature. This behaviour is consistent with thermal softening trends observed in soils heated under low suction values. However, soil specimens heated after suction application had greater peak shear strengths than the reference specimens. This indicates heating under high suction results in hardening. The impact of suction on the preconsolidation stress was found to be better represented by a power law model at high suction magnitudes than other available models. The estimated preconsolidation stress values were used to evaluate the impacts of stress history on the thermal volume change response, which matched well with data from tests on saturated specimens.     

Importance of Tensile Strength on the Shear Behavior of Discontinuities

In this study, the shear behavior of discontinuities possessing two different rock wall types with distinct separate compressive strengths was investigated. The designed profiles consisted of regular artificial joints molded by five types of plaster mortars, each representing a distinct uniaxial compressive strength. The compressive strengths of plaster specimens ranged from 5.9 to 19.5 MPa. These specimens were molded considering a regular triangular asperity profile and were designed so as to achieve joint walls with different strength material combinations. The results showed that the shear behavior of discontinuities possessing different joint wall compressive strengths (DDJCS) tested under constant normal load (CNL) conditions is the same as those possessing identical joint wall strengths, but the shear strength of DDJCS is governed by minor joint wall compressive strength. In addition, it was measured that the predicted values obtained by Barton’s empirical criterion are greater than the experimental results. The finding indicates that there is a correlation between the joint roughness coefficient (JRC), normal stress, and mechanical strength. It was observed that the mode of failure of asperities is either pure tensile, pure shear, or a combination of both. Therefore, Barton’s strength criterion, which considers the compressive strength of joint walls, was modified by substituting the compressive strength with the tensile strength. The validity of the modified criterion was examined by the comparison of the predicted shear values with the laboratory shear test results reported by Grasselli (Ph.D. thesis n.2404, Civil Engineering Department, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 2001). These comparisons infer that the modified criterion can predict the shear strength of joints more precisely.     

不同围压下岩石抗压强度与变形参数尺寸效应的数值模拟

岩石抗压强度和变形参数是岩石工程设计的重要指标。由于岩石是典型的非均质材料,其强度和变形特性随样品尺 寸的变化而不同。本文采用PFC2D程序模拟了不同围压下不同尺寸岩样的压缩试验。结果表明（1） 岩样具有明显的尺寸效 应。同一围压下,尺寸越大,岩石强度、峰值应变和压缩模量越小,尺寸的变化对岩样的破坏模式影响较小;（2） 岩样具 有明显的围压效应。同一尺寸的岩样,随着围压的增大,岩石强度、峰值应变和压缩模量均增加,其中强度和峰值应变随 围压的增加呈线性增加。同时,随着围压的增大,岩石破裂模式由轴向劈裂破坏向剪切破坏变化;（3） 围压的存在会影响 岩样的尺寸效应。不同尺寸岩样的强度和峰值应变在相同围压区间内的增量基本相同,同时随着围压的增大,其强度和峰 值应变增加,进而使岩石强度和峰值应变的尺寸效应弱化;而不同尺寸岩样的压缩模量在相同围压区间内的增长率大致相 同,因而造成围压对压缩模量尺寸效应的影响较小     

干湿交替对砂岩力学特性影响的试验研究

由于地下水位的升降等原因,岩体经常处于干湿交替状态,这对岩体工程的长期稳定性不利。以红砂岩为研究对象,进行了干燥－饱水干湿交替作用后的常规单轴和三轴压缩试验研究,获得了砂岩应力-应变曲线,分析了其变形破坏特征。相对于没有经过干湿交替作用的干燥试件,经过不同次数的干燥－饱水交替作用后,砂岩的弹性模量、单轴和三轴抗压强度、黏聚力、内摩擦角等都有不同程度的降低。各力学指标的总体变化趋势是在第1次饱水之后均有较大幅度的下降,此后,随着干湿交替作用次数增加其降低的幅度逐渐减小,干湿交替作用使岩石的延性增强。在围压作用下,砂岩的峰值强度均随着围压的增大而增大,干燥试件强度的围压效应要比多次干湿交替作用后的试件显著。     

估算异性岩石不连续面峰值剪切强度的经验公式

长江三峡库区广泛发育着两侧岩性不同的不连续面（称为异性不连续面）,研究其峰值剪切强度可为相关岩体的稳定性分析和评价提供理论依据。采用高强石膏浇注3组不同形貌且上、下壁面强度不同的不连续面试件,并在不同常法向应力下进行剪切试验。引入不连续面壁组合系数λ来综合量化不连续面壁的抗压强度和基本摩擦角对异性不连续面峰值剪切强度的影响,λ越小,上、下不连续面壁强度差异越大。异性不连续面的峰值剪切强度随λ的增加呈非线性增加,且在高法向应力下更为显著。在Barton公式的基础上,通过多元回归分析建立了估算异性不连续面峰值剪切强度的经验公式。采用天然和人工锯齿形异性不连续面的直剪试验结果对新公式做了进一步验证,试验剪切强度与新公式预测值吻合较好。简要分析了新公式在软硬互层岩质边坡稳定性评价中的应用。最后,讨论了Wu公式的适用性以及新公式的优点和不足。     

The influence of grading on the shear strength of loose sands in stress-controlled ring shear tests

Three silica sand samples—well graded, intermediately graded, and narrowly graded—having different uniformity coefficients, were constituted to allow the investigation of the influence of particle size distribution on their mechanical behavior. Using a ring shear apparatus, samples were tested under a wide range of laboratory conditions. Results of the tests clearly indicate that, for specimens confined under identical stress conditions, well-graded specimens have higher values of peak and steady state strengths than the rest of the specimens. A relationship between uniformity coefficient and shear strengths shows that the higher the uniformity coefficient, the higher the shear strength. On account of these, well-graded specimens have higher static liquefaction resistance than the poorly graded specimens. Within the range of normal stresses employed in the tests, results reveal that not only are poorly graded sands more likely to suffer higher postfailure strength reduction, but that their steady-state strengths are easily reduced to zero, the magnitude of the confining stress notwithstanding. This reduction of shear resistance to zero has been described as complete liquefaction in this paper. While almost all of the narrowly graded specimens suffered complete liquefaction, widely graded ones did not; an observation that seem to highlight the influence of grading on the mechanical behavior of the sands.     

Undrained Cyclic and Monotonic Strength of Sand-Silt Mixtures

In an attempt to correlate the monotonic peak strength and the cyclic strength of sand-silt mixtures over a wide range of parameters and to clarify some of the existing confusing conclusions in the literature regarding the undrained strength response of sand-silt mixtures, a series of stress controlled cyclic and strain controlled monotonic triaxial tests was carried out on sand-silt mixture specimens of 50 mm diameter and 100 mm height with varying silt content. In these experiments, various measures of sample density was adopted through different approaches such as constant gross void ratio approach, constant relative density approach, constant sand skeleton void ratio approach, and constant interfine void ratio approach. Also the effect of relative density and confining pressure on these strengths was studied. It is observed that the limiting fines content and the relative density of a specimen play the key role in deciding the cyclic and monotonic resistance of sand-silt mixtures when studied through any approach. For any silt content with relative density more than 70%, cyclic and monotonic resistances are observed to be independent of silt content. When the undrained cyclic strengths of these specimens are plotted against their respective undrained monotonic peak strengths, it is observed that there exists a definite exponential relationship between the two with an excellent correlation coefficient. An expression is proposed in this regard to help engineers assess the cyclic strength of sand-silt mixtures from monotonic test results.     

不同粒径花岗岩断裂力学行为及声发射特征研究

利用MTS815 Flex Test GT岩石力学试验系统及声发射（AE）三维定位实时监测系统,对4种不同粒径北山花岗岩进行断裂韧度试验,系统研究了不同粒度北山花岗岩的断裂力学行为及声发射特征。在三点弯曲试验条件下,北山花岗岩峰值过后断面还具有较大的承载面积。粒径越大,其峰值载荷越低,且屈服载荷所占峰值荷载百分比越小,断裂韧度值越小;粒径越大其破坏过程中的总变形量越大,且加载末期承载能力越高。细粒及中细粒岩样声发射事件最早出现于拉应力较大的尖端下部,而强度相对较小的粗粒及中粗粒岩样声发射事件最早出现于受点荷载的上端部。声发射事件集中出现于裂纹稳定扩张阶段,这一阶段为岩石断裂的最主要阶段。粒径越大,声发射事件越多,且整个断面分布越广泛。     

Development of Specimen Curing Procedures that Account for the Influence of Effective Stress During Curing on the Strength of Cemented Mine Backfill

Paste backfill used to provide ground support in underground mining is generated from full-stream tailings and is almost always placed underground with cement. For the backfill, both the rate of strength development and the final strength are important considerations for design, particularly when the backfill is subsequently exposed in the stope-mining sequence. There is strong evidence that strengths measured on specimens obtained from coring the in situ cemented backfill are much greater than laboratory-cured specimens with the same cement content. The paper reviews some of the experimental evidence showing that one of the major reasons for the different strength is the difference in effective stress acting on the backfill during curing. Laboratory specimens are (almost) always cured under zero total stress, so no effective stress develops. In contrast, backfill in a stope may cure under high effective stress, which develops due to either “conventional” consolidation in free-draining backfills, or to the so-called “self-desiccation” mechanism in fine-grained fills. Evidence is presented showing how the final strength is affected by applying stress to specimens at different stages of curing and at different rates. It is shown that a fully-coupled analysis of the filling behaviour is required to determine the appropriate effective stress regime to apply in curing laboratory specimens, where “fully-coupled” in this context means taking account of the interaction of consolidation/drainage rate, filling rate and cement hydration rate. Curing protocols for laboratory specimens are proposed, which would ensure that the strengths obtained are representative of in situ conditions.     

大理岩常规三轴压缩下强度和变形特性的试验研究

通过在伺服试验机上对中、粗颗粒大理岩进行常规三轴试验,基于试验结果,研究了两种颗粒大理岩的强度和变形特性。结果表明,低围压时岩样内部材料并未均匀化,岩石表现为应变软化特性;而高围压时岩样内部材料强度由低到高逐渐屈服,变形趋于均匀,岩石出现塑性流动特性。岩石的峰值应变与围压显著成正线性关系;中颗粒和粗颗粒岩样之间确实存在差异,但内摩擦系数可以表征材料力学性质,与粒径没有关系;岩石残余强度对围压的敏感性显著高于峰值强度。     

An Experimental Study of the Fracture Coalescence Behaviour of Brittle Sandstone Specimens Containing Three Fissures

To analyse the fracture coalescence behaviour of rock, rectangular prismatic sandstone specimens (80?×?160?×?30?mm in size) containing three fissures were tested under uniaxial compression. The strength and deformation behaviours of the specimens are first analysed by investigating the effects of the ligament angle β₂ on the peak strength, peak strain and crack initiation stress of the specimens. To confirm the sequence of crack coalescence, a photographic monitoring technique is used throughout the entire period of deformation. Based on the results, the relationship between the real-time crack coalescence process and the axial stress–strain curve of brittle sandstone specimens is also developed, and this relationship can be used to evaluate the macroscopic deformation characteristics of pre-cracked rock. The equivalent strain evolution fields of the specimen, with α?=?β₁?=?45° and β₂?=?90°, are obtained using the digital image correlation technique and show good agreement with the experimental results of pre-cracked brittle sandstone. These experimental results are expected to improve the understanding of fracture mechanisms and be used in rock engineering with intermittent structures, such as deep underground excavated tunnels.     

Three-dimensional finite element simulation of fracture propagation in rock specimens with pre-existing fissure(s) under compression and their strength analysis

A FORTRAN program, consistent with the commercially available finite element (FE) code ABAQUS, is developed based on a three-dimensional (3D) linear elastic brittle damage constitutive model with two damage criteria. To consider the heterogeneity of rock, the developed FORTRAN program is used to set the stiffness and strength properties of each element of the FE model following a Weibull distribution function. The reliability of the program is assessed against available experimental results for granite cylindrical specimens with a throughgoing, flat and inclined fissure. The calibration procedure of the material parameters is explained in detail, and it is shown that the compressive to tensile strength ratio can have a substantial influence on the failure response of the specimens. Numerical simulations are conducted for models with different levels of heterogeneity. The results show a smaller load bearing capacity for models with less homogeneity, representing gradual coalescence of fully damaged elements forming throughout the models during loading. The maximum load bearing capacity is studied for various combinations of inclination angles of two centrally aligned, throughgoing and flat fissures of equal length embedded in cylindrical models under uniaxial and multiaxial loading conditions. The key role of the compressive to tensile strength ratio is highlighted by repeating certain simulations with a lower compressive to tensile strength ratio. It is proven that the peak loads of the rock models with sufficiently small compressive to tensile strength ratios containing two throughgoing fissures of equal length are similar, provided that the minimum inclination angles of the models are the same. The results are presented and discussed with respect to the existing experimental findings in the literature, suggesting that the numerical model applied in this study can provide useful insight into the failure behaviour of rock-like materials.     

Multi-Modal Monitoring of Slip Along Frictional Discontinuities

Seismic wave transmission and digital image correlation (DIC) are employed to study slip processes along frictional discontinuities. A series of biaxial compression experiments are performed on gypsum specimens with non-homogeneous contact surfaces. The specimens are composed of two blocks with perfectly mated contact surfaces with a smooth surface with low frictional strength on the upper half and a rough surface with high frictional strength on the lower half. Compressional, P, and shear, S, wave pulses were transmitted through the discontinuity while digital images of the specimen surface were acquired during the test. A distinct peak in the amplitude of transmitted wave occurs prior to the peak shear strength and is considered a “precursor” to the failure. Precursors indicate that slip initiates from the smooth surface and extends to the rough surface as the shear load is increased. From the DIC data, slip is identified as a jump in the displacement field along the fracture that initiates from the smooth surface and propagates to the rough surface. Precursors are associated with an increase in the rate of slip across the discontinuity and are a measure of the reduction in the fracture shear stiffness.     

A three-dimensional numerical investigation of the fracture of rock specimens containing a pre-existing surface flaw

Three-dimensional surface crack initiation and propagation in two kinds of heterogeneous rocks were numerically investigated via parallel finite element analysis using a supercomputer. Numerically simulated rock specimens containing a pre-existing flaw were subjected to uniaxial compression until failure. The initiation and propagation of wing cracks, anti-wing cracks, and shell-like cracks were reproduced by numerical simulations. The numerically simulated results demonstrate that the further propagation of wing cracks and shell-like cracks stop due to their wrapping (curving) behavior in three-dimensional spaces, even if the applied loads continue to increase. Furthermore, rock heterogeneity could significantly influence crack propagation patterns and the peak uniaxial compressive strengths of rock specimens. Moreover, anti-wing cracks only appeared in relatively heterogeneous rocks, and the peak uniaxial compressive strengths of the specimens were observed to depend on the inclination of the pre-existing flaw. Finally, the mechanism of surface crack propagation is discussed in the context of numerically simulated anti-plane loading tests, wherein it was identified that Mode III loading (anti-plane loading) does not lead to Mode III fracture in rocks due to their high ratio of uniaxial compressive strength to tensile strength. This finding could explain the lateral growth of an existing flaw in its own plane, which is a phenomenon that has not been observed in laboratory experiments.     

吕梁山区黄土边坡工程地质分区及强度参数选取

在山西省黄土高原综合治理分区图基础上,通过实地调查最典型黄土丘陵沟壑区（I区）的53个典型公路黄土边坡,根据边坡类型、地层组合形式以及边坡破坏模式等要素,将其进一步划分为晋西北（Ia）、晋西（Ib）和晋西南（Ic）3个亚区; 并对53个边坡的黄土进行了强度特征的试验研究,获得了边坡黄土在不同直剪试验方法下的峰值强度、启动强度与残余强度的参数值。根据边坡工程地质特征与工程调查类比,对3个亚区边坡在3种强度参数下的稳定性进行了统计和数值分析,结合应力变形计算实例分析发现:强度参数在不同地域具有明显的差异特征,晋西北区（Ia）降雨少,构造活动不频繁,边坡以坡面破坏为主,采用峰值强度进行边坡设计更为合适; 晋西区（Ib）构造发育,老滑坡较多,且地震活动使得土体强度相对下降,公路边坡设计的强度参数选用残余强度,有较高的安全保证; 晋西南区（Ic）降雨多,优先选用启动强度,能最大程度地避免地质灾害的发生。