Regional-Scale Heat and Water Vapour Fluxes in an Agricultural Landscape: An Evaluation of CBL Budget Methods at OASIS

This paper evaluates convective boundary layer (CBL) budget methods as a tool for estimating regionally averaged sensible and latent heat fluxes for the study region used in OASIS (Observations at Several Interacting Scales). This is an agricultural region of mixed cropping and grazing extending about 100 km west of the town of Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia.The analysis proceeds in three stages: first, a simpleone-dimensional model of the well-mixed layer (the CBL slab model), forced with measurements of the surface heat and evaporation fluxes, is evaluated by comparing measured and modelled CBL temperature, humidity and depths. A comparison of several entrainment schemes shows that a simple model, where the entrainment kinetic energy is parameterised as a fraction (₃) of the surface sensible heat flux, works well if is set to 0.5. Second, the slab model is coupled to a Penman–Monteith model of surface evaporation to predict regional scale evaporation and thence heat fluxes. Finally, the integral CBL budget approach, which is an inverse method using theone-dimensional slab model, is used to infer regional heat and evaporation fluxes from measured time series of CBL temperature and humidity.We find that the simple CBL slab model works reasonably well for predicting CBL depth and very well for CBL temperature, especially if approximate estimates of subsidence velocity and warming due to advection are included. Regional sensible heat fluxes estimated from the integral CBL method match those measured, although the method is very sensitive to measurement errors. Measurement-model differences were larger for short integration times, because the well-mixed assumptions are violated at particular times of the day. The corollary is that `whole-day' (0530–1530 h) estimates are in reasonable agreement with measured values. Integral methods could not be used to infer the regional evaporation flux directly because CBL humidity profiles were complex and often not well mixed until mid-afternoon. We recommend that regional evaporation fluxes be predicted either from a coupled Penman–Monteith – CBL slab model, or inferred as a residual term from estimates of the regionally averaged available energy and sensible heat flux. Furthermore, we show that inferring fluxes via integral methods will always be difficult when the scalar concentrations have either a large surface source and free atmosphere sink (in the case of water vapour and methane), or a large surface sink and upper level source (in the case of CO₂).     

The Contribution of Variability of Lift-induced Upwash to the Uncertainty in Vertical Winds Determined from an Aircraft Platform

Aircraft-based vertical flux measurements fill a gap in the spatial domain for studies of biosphere–atmosphere exchange. To acquire valid flux data, a determination of the deviation from the mean vertical wind, w′, is essential. When using aircraft platforms, flux measurements are subject to systematic and random errors from airflow distortion caused by the lift-induced upwash ahead of the aircraft. Although upwash is typically considered to be a constant quantity over periods used for calculating fluxes, it can vary significantly over short (and longer) periods due to changes in aircraft lift. The characterization of such variations in upwash are of undeniable importance to flux measurements, especially when real-time computations of w′ are required. In this paper, the variability in upwash was compared to the calculated upwash from the model of Crawford et al. (Boundary-Layer Meteorol, 80:79–94, 1996) using data taken during a long-period (phugoid mode) free oscillation of the aircraft. The cyclic variation of lift during the free oscillation offers an ideal scenario in which to acquire in-flight data on the upwash that is present, as well as to test the capability of upwash correction models. Our results indicate that while this model corrects for much of the mean upwash, there can be significant variations in upwash on a time scale that is important to flux measurements. Our results suggest that use of the measured load factor could be an easily implemented operational constraint to minimize uncertainty in w′ due to changing upwash from changing aircraft lift. We estimate, using the phugoid data, and from variations in aircraft attitude and airspeed in flux-measurement configuration, that the uncertainty in w caused by variable upwash is approximately ± 0.05 m s⁻¹.     

Turbulent Transport atthe Thermal Internal Boundary-Layer top:Wavelet Analysis of Aircraft Measurements

Aircraft measurements of turbulent fluxes ofscalars collected during the BEMA campaignat the Mediterranean Spanish coast havebeen analysed using wavelet techniques. The analysis aimsat characterising the boundary-layerstructure present during a period ofthe campaign with particular attention to therole of the Thermal Internal Boundary Layer (TIBL) in regulatingthe exchange processes with the overlyingfree atmosphere. The analysis of the dataobtained by flying through the turbulentlayer reveals the presence of characteristicstructures as the aircraft crossesthe TIBL top. These occur in a specific space and scale range. Comparisons of the result of the analysisobtained for different types of scalarsgive evidence that the region correspondingto the detected scales can be identifiedwith the entrainment zone of the TIBL.     

A Case Study of the Near-Neutral Coastal Internal Boundary-Layer Growth: Aircraft Measurements Compared with Different Model Estimates

A simplified version of a model of the internalboundary layer evolution is compared with aircraftmeasurements across the southern part of the east coast ofSweden (Blekinge). The two flight occasions used hererepresent relatively high wind velocities and negligiblesurface heat flux. Both the vertical potential temperaturegradient and the surface temperaturedifference between land and sea are small. Modelpredictions of the internal boundary-layer (IBL)height agree well with data, for both short and largerdistances from the coastline. The contributions to theIBL growth from the mechanical turbulence and theZilitinkevich correction are discussed, as are thesensitivities of the growth to a number of physicalparameters. In near neutralconditions, the vertical potential temperaturegradient is found to be an important parameter for thegrowth of the IBL.A comparison with several simple model estimates forthe height of the IBL is presented. The majority ofthe models overestimate the IBL height. Some of themodels give reasonable results close to the coast, butgenerally the simple models perform less well atlarger distances.     

香河地基观测臭氧柱总量数据分析及臭氧变化趋势研究

大气臭氧变化在全球气候和环境中具有重要作用,是当今大气科学领域的重要研究对象之一。对比分析了中国科学院大气物理研究所河北香河大气综合观测试验站2014～2016年Dobson和Brewer两种臭氧总量观测仪器探测结果的一致性,并使用1979～2016年Dobson观测数据分析了香河地区臭氧总量的长期变化趋势。结果表明:进行有效温度修正后,两种臭氧总量仪器观测结果一致性较好,平均偏差仅为-0.14DU(多布森单位),平均绝对偏差为8.00 DU,标准差为36.09 DU,相关系数达0.964。整体来说,两类仪器观测臭氧总量吻合较好。SO2浓度对Dobson仪器数据精度有一定影响,两组仪器数据在SO2浓度为0～0.2DU、0.2～0.4DU和0.4DU大气条件情况下的平均偏差分别为4.8 DU、7.0 DU和8.0 DU,平均偏差随SO2浓度升高而增大。过去38年香河地区的臭氧总量季节差异性强,春、冬两季臭氧总量高,夏、秋两季臭氧总量相对低,季节变化趋势差异明显。从长期变化上看,臭氧总量变化波动有不同的周期,在4个大的时间段变化趋势不同,2000～2010年臭氧层有显著恢复,但最近几年又有变薄的趋势。     

基于飞机观测的华北积层混合云降水微物理特征的数值模拟研究

基于2009年5月1日积层混合云降水2架飞机观测数据分析,使用中尺度模式WRFV3对此次过程积云区和层云区的微物理特征和转化过程进行数值模拟比较研究。飞机观测数据分析表明,此次积层混合云中的层云区和积云区冰粒子形状和形成过程有明显差别,层云区的粒子形状组成比较复杂,包含针状、柱状和辐枝状等,而积云区主要以辐枝状粒子为主,聚并、凇附过程明显。数值模式能较好地模拟出此次积层混合云降水过程的基本特征,包括回波分布、飞行路径上降水粒子的数浓度和液态水含量等。数值模拟结果表明,云水相对丰富、上升气流强的层云区凇附过程较强,产生的雪在低层融化为雨水,为后期高层形成的雪和霰提供丰富的液态水,能发展成对流较强的积云区,存在播种—供给机制。在积云区,水成物的比例从大到小依次为雪（51.9%）、霰（31.0%）和雨水（16.0%）;雪的主要源项包括淞附增长（56.8%）和凝华增长（40.1%）,霰的主要源项包括凇附增长（46.6%）、雨水碰并雪成霰（42.6%）和凝华增长（16.1%）,雨水的主要源项是霰（77.6%）和雪（22.4%）的融化。而相对云水较少、上升气流较弱的层云区将保持层云的状态,层云区水成物的比例从大到小依次为雪（90.4%）、雨水（6.1%）、冰晶（3.5%）;高层冰晶和雪通过凝华过程增长,雪在零度层下融化为弱的降水。     

Impact of terrain heterogeneity on near-surface turbulence structure

This study investigates the impact of terrain heterogeneity on local turbulence measurements using 18 months of turbulence data taken on a 30 m tower at the SIRTA mixed land-use observatory under varying stability conditions and fetch configurations. These measurements show that turbulence variables such as the turbulent kinetic energy or momentum fluxes are strongly dependent on the upstream complexity of the terrain (presence of trees or buildings, open field). However, using a detection technique based on wavelet transforms which permits the isolation of the large-scale coherent structures from small-scale background fluctuations, the study shows that, for all stability conditions, whatever the upstream complexity of the terrain, the coherent structures display universal properties which are independent of the terrain nature: the frequency of occurrence, time duration of the coherent structures, the time separation between coherent structures and the relative contribution of the coherent structures to the total fluxes (momentum and heat) appear to be independent of the upstream roughness. This is an important result since coherent structures are known to transport a large portion of the total energy. This study extends to all stability conditions a numerical study by Fesquet et al. [Fesquet, C., Dupont, S., Drobinski, P., Barthlott, C., Dubos, T., 2008. Impact of terrain heterogeneities on coherent structures properties: experimental and numerical approaches. In: 18th Symposium on Boundary Layers and Turbulence. No. 11B.1. Stockholm, Sweden., Fesquet, C., Dupont, S., Drobinski, P., Dubos, T., Barthlott, C., in press. Impact of terrain heterogeneity on coherent structure properties: numerical approach. Bound.-Layer Meteorol.] conducted in neutral conditions which shows that a reason for such behavior is that the production of local active turbulence in an internal boundary layer associated with coherent structure originating from the outer layer and impinging onto the ground is not sensitive to the nature of the terrain.     

强降雪天气中GPS可降水量与地面空气湿度的综合分析

利用2008-2010年河北省石家庄市地基GPS反演的可降水量资料和常规天气资料,对可降水量在强降雪天气过程中的演变趋势进行了分析。结果表明,回流降雪过程出现前24h,可降水量存在一个极大值,而且这个值越大,对应的过程降水量就越大;在降雪开始前,可降水量经过长时间的酝酿,持续高于月均值;降雪过程结束后,可降水量缓慢下降...     

地基GPS遥测大气可降水量应用精度和范围

利用2005年6～8河北省石家庄、张家口两个地基GPS站反演得到的大气可降水量资料,对探空资料计算的大气可降水量和GPS反演的大气可降水量进行比较,并通过2007年7月17～19日河北中南部一次强降水过程的个例分析,发现GPS资料反演的大气可降水量略高于探空站资料的计算结果,但两种资料的可降水量计算结果变化趋势一致,GPS反演的大气可降水量具有较高的使用价值,但单站GPS反演的大气可降水量有效半径距离具有一定限度.     

Aircraft Observations of Air-mass Modification Over the Sea of Okhotsk during Sea-ice Growth

In order to quantitatively investigate the role of leads and sea-ice in air-mass modification, aircraft observations were conducted over the partially ice-covered Sea of Okhotsk. We investigated two cold-air outbreak events with different sea-ice concentrations. In both cases, the difference between the temperatures of surface air and the sea surface (ΔT) dropped rapidly with the accumulated fetch-width of leads up to about 35-40 km, and then decreased very slowly. The surface sensible heat flux originating from open water was about 300 W m⁻² within a few kilometres from the coast and decreased with increasing accumulated fetch-width. The sensible heat flux was about 100 W m⁻² on average. These results indicate that the downwind air-mass modification depends mainly on the total (accumulated) extent of open water. The total buoyancy flux calculated by the joint frequency distribution method correlated very well with ice concentration. Such a relationship was not clear in the case of the moisture flux . The ratio between rising thermals and cold downdrafts differed significantly between upwind and downwind regions; that is, the buoyancy flux was dominated by in the developing stage of the boundary layer, while also became important after the development of the boundary layer.     

均匀裸土地表土壤热通量计算方法对比及对能量闭合的影响

利用"内蒙古微气象观测蒸发试验"的观测资料,对6种地表土壤热通量计算方法(Plate Cal法、TDEC法、谐波法、热传导对流法、振幅法和相位法)进行比较,检验了6种方法在不同干湿地表状况下的适用性,并研究了6种方法计算地表土壤热通量的差异以及对地表能量闭合度的影响。结果表明:一般情况下,Plate Cal法计算的2 cm土壤热通量与观测值最接近,计算结果的均方差为6.9 W/m2。在不同干湿地表状况下,干燥和降水条件下适合使用Plate Cal法,计算结果的均方差分别为14.0 W/m2和30.1 W/m2;湿润条件下适合使用谐波法,计算结果的均方差为21.4 W/m2。6种方法计算的地表土壤热通量存在明显差别,最大相差178.6 W/m2,不同方法计算地表土壤热通量的最大差值超过25 W/m2的时次占样本的96.3%。不同方法计算地表土壤热通量的差异对地表能量闭合度的大小有明显影响,但不影响近地层能量闭合度随湍流混合增强而增大的规律。     

Comparison of Kansas Data with High-resolution Large-eddy Simulation Fields

The surface layer of an atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) is most accessible to field measurements and hence its ensemble-mean structure has been well established. The Kansas field measurements were the first detailed study of this layer, providing numerous benchmark statistical profiles for a wide range of stability states. Large-eddy simulation (LES), in contrast, is most suitable for studying the mixed layer of the ABL where the energy-containing range of the vertical velocity field is well resolved. In the surface layer, typical large-eddy simulations barely resolve the energy-containing vertical-velocity fields and hence do not provide sufficient data for a detailed analysis.We carried out a nested-mesh simulation of a moderately convective ABL (-z_i/L = 8) in which the lower 6% of the boundary layer had an effective grid resolution of 512³. We analyze the LES fields above the 6th vertical grid level (z = 23 m) where the vertical velocity field has a well formed inertial subrange, for a detailed comparison with the Kansas results. Various terms in the budgets of turbulent kinetic energy, temperature variance, Reynolds stress, temperature flux, and some higher order moments are compared. The agreement is generally quite good; however, we do observe certain discrepancies, particularly in the terms involving pressure fluctuations.     

秋冬季节转换期东亚环流变化特征及机制分析

利用NCEP/NCAR候平均再分析资料,对秋冬季节转换前后大气环流特征及高低层季节转换的时间差异进行研究。结果表明:青藏高原表面气温的季节性转变是东亚地区秋冬季节转换的信号,其剧烈的降温将快速引导环流形势向冬季型转变,一定强度的西伯利亚冷高压的建立亦是季节转换的指示器。从秋冬季节转换前后的环流形势对比来看,急流南撤至35°N以南、急流中心稳定移至西太平洋上空、南亚高压反气旋中心退至西太平洋上空时间比较一致,可视为冬季环流建立的标志。通过分析青藏高原及江淮地区表面热通量的变化得知,秋冬季节,青藏高原地面对大气感热及潜热加热的急剧减少,远远超过了净长波辐射加热的增加,这种热量的减少使得离地最近的地面气温出现相应降温,在滞后表面加热突变后2~3候出现季节转换。由于感热的变化主要影响低层,高层对感热变化的响应主要是通过热力适应机制,导致高层的季节转换时间滞后于低层。而江淮流域地区地表潜热加热的急剧减少亦是大气环流改变的一个热力因素,可能是由于潜热加热到达一定的高度通过凝结加热的方式直接影响高层,所以高低层季节转换时间基本一致。     

我国云降水物理飞机观测研究进展

飞机观测是云中粒子相态、分布和转化特征的重要探测技术。我国云降水物理飞机观测开始于20世纪60年代,经过60多年的发展,在飞机平台、机载测量技术、云微物理结构和降水形成机制认识等方面均取得了长足进步。发现积层混合云中对流泡区具有更高的过冷水含量,凇附增长起重要作用,符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制,而在层云区,当云厚度较小时,过冷水含量很少,冰雪晶的凝华、聚并增长起主导作用,并不符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制,而当云厚度较大时,过冷水含量较为丰富,凝华、聚并和凇附增长起主导作用,基本符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制;我国北方冬季降雪过程的形成机制主要是凝华-聚并机制,只有在水汽非常充足、云较厚的情况下,凇附增长过程才具有重要作用。近年虽然在人工影响天气播撒效应、数值模式云物理过程验证、卫星及雷达遥感数据检验、对流云结构观测等方面也取得了一些进展,但仍较薄弱,亟待加强。     

Radiative and Evaporative Cooling in the Entrainment Zone of Stratocumulus – the Role of Longwave Radiative Cooling Above Cloud Top

A mixing fraction determines the relative amount of above-cloud-top air that has been mixed into a cloudy air parcel. A method, based on the use of mixing fractions, to calculate the cooling effects due to mixing, longwave radiation and phase changes at cloud top is derived and discussed. We compute cooling effects for the whole range of mixing fraction for two observed cases of the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer. In both cases the total radiative cooling effect is found to be the most dominant contributor to the negative buoyancy excess found at cloud top. The largest radiative cooling rates are found for clear-air parcels immediately adjacent to cloud top rather than inside the cloud. With the help of a simple longwave radiation model, we show this to be caused by clear-air radiative cooling due to the temperature inversion at cloud top. Further we show that flux profiles in the entrainment zone can be computed from data obtained from a horizontal level run that is half the time in cloud and half the time out of cloud.     

祁连山冷锋过程中积层混合云微物理特征飞机观测研究

利用高性能空中国王飞机搭载的DMT(Droplet Measurement Technologies)探测系统,分析2020年6月15—16日祁连山地区两次冷锋过程前后积层混合云的宏微观特征。结果表明:冷锋前CIP(Cloud Imaging Probe)粒子平均浓度在10¹~10²L^-1,PIP(Precipitation Imaging Probe)粒子浓度在10² L^-1;CIP粒子数浓度随高度逐渐上升,降水粒子在7 300 m时浓度达到峰值后下降;平均粒子谱拓宽速率为3.5 mm·km^-1,随着高度的下降而降低。冷锋前存在对流泡区域,对流泡内粒子浓度均高出对流泡外,粒子谱拓宽速率高出层云一倍。冷锋后大CIP粒子粒子浓度为10² L^-1,降水粒子浓度为10⁰~10² L^-1,粒子谱拓宽速率为1.5 mm·km^-1,较冷锋前粒子谱拓宽速率小1.7倍。锋前后粒子均呈现多峰型;锋前积层混合云云中对流泡内外谱型一致,云顶处对流泡内外峰值粒径不同。锋前云粒子形状为聚合状、枝状、柱状和不规则状,以聚合状为主;云内冰晶以凇附和聚合增长为主;对流泡内外在粒子形态上没有明显差异。锋后粒子形状以不规则粒子为主,云粒子增长形式以聚合增长为主,并伴有上层云向下层播撒大云粒子的现象。     

河北秋季层状云物理结构及适播性分析

利用2006-2010年河北省人工影响天气办公室对29块云体9架次飞机探测(或作业)资料,统计分析了河北地区秋季层状云气溶胶粒子、云凝结核CCN、小云粒子、大云粒子、降水粒子浓度和云粒子有效直径等物理特征。结果表明,河北地区适宜增雨作业的云系为中、低或高、中、低搭配的层状云,过冷层催化有利于云体发展,促使气流流入形成正反馈。适宜催化的作业层指标有:云层高度为4582 m,云内平均含水量≥0.1 g·m-3,所对应温度为-8.0℃,小云粒子浓度为236.5 cm-3。     

Inland and Offshore Propagation Speeds of a Sea Breeze from Simulations and Measurements

The inland and offshore propagation speeds of a sea breeze circulation cell are simulated using a three-dimensional hydrostatic model within a terrain-following coordinate system. The model includes a third-order semi-Lagrangian advection scheme, which compares well in a one-dimensional stand-alone test with the more complex Bott and Smolarkiewicz advection schemes. Two turbulence schemes are available: a local scheme by Louis (1979) and a modified non-local scheme based on Zhang and Anthes (1982). Both compare well with higher-order closure schemes using the Wangara data set for Day 33–34 (Clark et al., 1971).Two-dimensional cross-sections derived from airborne sea breeze measurements (Finkele et al. 1995) constitute the basis for comparison with two-dimensional numerical model results. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is defined as the speed at which the seaward extent of the sea breeze grows offshore. On a study day, the offshore sea breeze propagation speed, from both measurements and model, is -3.4 m s^-1. The measured inland propagation speed of the sea breeze decreased somewhat during the day. The model results show a fairly uniform inland propagation speed of 1.6 m s^-1 which corresponds to the average measured value. The offshore sea breeze propagation speed is about twice the inland propagation speed for this particular case study, from both the model and measurements.The influence of the offshore geostrophic wind on the sea breeze evolution, offshore extent and inland penetration are investigated. For moderate offshore geostrophic winds (-5.0 m s^-1), the offshore and inland propagation speeds are non-uniform. The offshore extent in moderate geostrophic wind conditions is similar to the offshore extent in light wind conditions (-2.5 m s^-1). The inland extent is greater in light offshore geostrophic winds than in moderate ones. This suggests that the offshore extent of the sea breeze is less sensitive to the offshore geostrophic wind than its inland extent. However, these results hold only if it is possible to define an inland propagation speed. For stronger offshore geostrophic winds (-7.5 m s^-1), the sea breeze is completely offshore and the inland propagation speed is ill-defined.     

春夏季青藏高原与伊朗高原地表热通量的时空分布特征及相互联系

伊朗高原和青藏高原热力作用对东亚区域气候具有重要影响。基于1979—2014年欧洲中心ERA-interim月平均再分析地表热通量资料,分析了春、夏季青藏高原与伊朗高原地表热通量的时、空分布特征以及春、夏季青藏高原与伊朗高原地表热通量的关系。结果表明,春、夏季青藏高原与伊朗高原地表热通量在季节、年际和年代际尺度上具有不同的时、空分布特征。对于青藏高原,春、夏季地表感热呈西部大东部小、地表潜热呈东部大西部小;地表感热在春季最大且大于地表潜热,地表潜热在夏季最大且大于地表感热。在年际时间尺度上,春、夏季青藏高原地表热通量异常的年际变化在东、西部不一致,青藏高原西部,地表感热与地表潜热有较强的负相关关系。青藏高原地表感热异常具有很强的持续性,当春季地表感热较强（弱）时,夏季高原地表感热同样较强（弱）。青藏高原东部与西部地表热通量的年代际变化有明显差异,春（夏）季青藏高原东部地表感热呈显著的年代际减弱趋势,1998（2001）年发生年代际转折,由正异常转为负异常;而青藏高原西部地表感热在春季则有显著的增大趋势,2003年发生年代际转折,由负异常转为正异常。青藏高原东部地表潜热仅在春季为显著减弱趋势,2003年出现年代际转折,由正异常转为负异常;青藏高原西部地表潜热在春、夏季都有显著减弱趋势,年代际转折出现在21世纪初,由正异常转为负异常。对于伊朗高原,春、夏季地表热通量的空间分布在整个区域较一致,地表感热在夏季最大,地表潜热在春季大、夏季小,但各季节地表感热都大于地表潜热。相对于青藏高原地表感热,伊朗高原地表感热在各月都更大。在年际时间尺度上,春、夏季伊朗高原各区域地表热通量异常的年际变化较一致;地表感热与潜热有很强的负相关关系;伊朗高原地表感热、潜热异常都具有持续性,当春季地表感热（潜热）通量较强（弱）时,夏季地表感热（潜热）通量同样较强（弱）。伊朗高原北部与南部地表热通量的年代际变化存在差异。其中,春、夏季伊朗高原北部地表感热（潜热）呈显著增强（减弱）趋势,在20世纪末发生了年代际转折,春、夏季北部地表感热（潜热）由负（正）异常转为正（负）异常。而伊朗高原南部春、夏季地表热通量无显著变化趋势,但春季地表感热、潜热与夏季地表感热同样在20世纪末存在年代际转折,地表感热（潜热）由负（正）异常转为正（负）异常。春、夏季两个高原地区地表热通量的关系主要表现为:就春季同期变化而言,伊朗高原地表感热与青藏高原西部地表感热具有同相变化关系,与青藏高原东部地表感热具有反相变化关系,伊朗高原地表潜热与青藏高原东部地表潜热具有同相变化关系;就非同期变化而言,春季伊朗高原地表感热与夏季青藏高原东部地表感热存在反相变化关系。