STEREO SECCHI and S/WAVES Observations of Spacecraft Debris Caused by Micron-Size Interplanetary Dust Impacts

Early in the STEREO mission observers noted that the white-light instruments of the SECCHI suite were detecting significantly more spacecraft-related “debris” than any previously flown coronagraphic instruments. Comparison of SECCHI “debris storms” with S/WAVES indicates that almost all are coincident with the most intense transient emissions observed by the radio and plasma waves instrument. We believe the debris is endogenous (i.e., from the spacecraft thermal blanketing), and the storms appear to be caused by impacts of large interplanetary dust grains that are detected by S/WAVES. Here we report the observations, compare them to interplanetary dust distributions, and document a reminder for future spacebased coronagraphic instrument builders.

     

Comparing Solar Minimum 23/24 with Historical Solar Wind Records at 1 AU

Based on the variations of sunspot numbers, we choose a 1-year interval at each solar minimum from the beginning of the acquisition of solar wind measurements in the ecliptic plane and at 1 AU. We take the period of July 2008??C?June 2009 to represent the solar minimum between Solar Cycles 23 and 24. In comparison with the previous three minima, this solar minimum has the slowest, least dense, and coolest solar wind, and the weakest magnetic field. As a result, the solar wind dynamic pressure, dawn?Cdusk electric field, and geomagnetic activity during this minimum are the weakest among the four minima. The weakening trend had already appeared during solar minimum 22/23, and it may continue into the next solar minimum. During this minimum, the galactic cosmic ray intensity reached the highest level in the space age, while the number of solar energetic proton events and the ground level enhancement events were the least. Using solar wind measurements near the Earth over 1995??C?2009, we have surveyed and characterized the large-scale solar wind structures, including fast-slow stream interaction regions (SIRs), interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs), and interplanetary shocks. Their solar cycle variations over the 15 years are studied comprehensively. In contrast with the previous minimum, we find that there are more SIRs and they recur more often during this minimum, probably because more low- and mid-latitude coronal holes and active regions emerged due to the weaker solar polar field than during the previous minimum. There are more shocks during this solar minimum, probably caused by the slower fast magnetosonic speed of the solar wind. The SIRs, ICMEs, and shocks during this minimum are generally weaker than during the previous minimum, but did not change as much as did the properties of the undisturbed solar wind.     

Numerical simulations of high-speed solar wind streams within 1 AU and their signatures at 1 AU

A parametric study of the evolution within, and signatures at, 1 AU of high-speed streams is performed with the use of a MHD, 21/2-D, time-dependent model. This study is an extension of an earlier one by Smith and Dryer (1990) who examined the ecliptic plane consequences of relatively short-duration, energetic solar disturbances. The present study examines both the erupting and corotating parts of long-duration, high-speed streams characteristic of coronal hole flows. By examining the variation of the simulated plasma velocity, density, temperature, and magnetic field at 1 AU, as well as the location of the solar coronal hole sources relative to the observer at 1 AU, we are able to provide some insight into the identification of the solar sources of interplanetary disturbances. We present and discuss two definitions for angle locating the solar source of interplanetary disturbances at 1 AU.We apply our results to the suggestion by Hewish (1988) that low-latitude coronal holes are suitably positioned to be the sources of major geomagnetic storms when the holes are in the eastern half of the solar hemisphere at the time of the commencement of the storm. Our results indicate that, for these cases, the streams emanating from within the hole must be very fast, greater than 1000 km s^–1, or very wide, greater than 60°, at the inner boundary of 18 solar radii in our simulation.     

Solar wind flow associated with stream-free sector boundaries at 1 AU

The correlations between the plasma characteristics of the solar wind flow in the vicinity (± 12 hr) of stream-free sector boundaries near Earth are examined using the composite data base of interplanetary plasma for the period 1965–1980. We confirm the result of Lopez et al. (1986) of an inverse relationship of the proton temperature (T _p) with the momentum flux density (NV ²) in the low speed wind at 1 AU. The coefficients of lines of best fit to the T _pvs NV ²(as well as T _pvs V) distribution in our sample are, however, significantly different from those of the undifferentiated sample of low speed wind considered by Lopez et al. such that T _pis, in general, lower than expected. We find further that the proton number density (N) varies as the inverse cube of the flow speed (V) indicating an invariance of the kinetic energy flux density (NV ³) relative to velocity structure in the plasma flow around stream-free boundaries. These average relationships, which are unaffected by interplanetary dynamical processes, are suggested to be due to sub-sonic addition of momentum and energy to the solar wind flow from the source structures, namely coronal streamers.     

Interplanetary acceleration of energetic particles at 1 and 5 AU

Energetic particle (0.1 to 100 MeV protons) acceleration is studied by using high resolution interplanetary magnetic field and plasma measurements at 1 AU (HEOS-2) and at 5 AU (Pioneer 10). Energy changes of a particle population are followed by computing test particle trajectories and the energy changes through the particle interaction with the time varying magnetic field. The results show that considerable particle acceleration takes place throughout the interplanetary medium, both in the corotating interaction regions (CIR) (5 AU), and in quiet regions (1 AU). Although shocks may contribute to acceleration we suggest statistical acceleration within the CIRs is sufficient to explain most energetic particle observations (e.g., McDonaldet al., 1975; Barnes and Simpson, 1976).The first and second order statistical acceleration coefficients which include transit time damping and Alfvén resonance interactions, are found to be well represented byD _T 8.5×10^–6 T ^0.5 MeV s^–1 andD _TT 4×10^–6 T ^1.5 MeV² s^–1 at 5 AU.By comparison, Fisk's estimates (1976), based on quasi-linear theory for transit-time damping, gaveD _TT 5×10^–7 T MeV² s^–1 at 1 AU.     

Solar Flare and CME Observations with STEREO/EUVI

STEREO/EUVI observed 185 flare events (detected above the GOES class C1 level or at >?25 keV with RHESSI) during the first two years of the mission (December 2006?–?November 2008), while coronal mass ejections (CMEs) were reported in about a third of these events. We compile a comprehensive catalog of these EUVI-observed events, containing the peak fluxes in soft X rays, hard X rays, and EUV, as well as a classification and statistics of prominent EUV features: 79% show impulsive EUV emission (coincident with hard X rays), 73% show delayed EUV emission from postflare loops and arcades, 24% represent occulted flares, 17% exhibit EUV dimming, 5% show loop oscillations or propagating waves, and at least 3% show erupting filaments. We analyze an example of each EUV feature by stereoscopic modeling of its 3D geometry. We find that EUV emission can be dominated by impulsive emission from a heated, highly sheared, noneruptive filament, in addition to the more common impulsive EUV emission from flare ribbons or the delayed postflare EUV emission that results from cooling of the soft-X-ray-emitting flare loops. Occulted flares allow us to determine CME-related coronal dimming uncontaminated from flare-related EUV emission. From modeling the time evolution of EUV dimming we can accurately quantify the initial expansion of CMEs and determine their masses. Further, we find evidence that coronal loop oscillations are excited by the rapid initial expansion of CMEs. These examples demonstrate that stereoscopic EUV data provide powerful new methods to model the 3D aspects in the hydrodynamics of flares and kinematics of CMEs.     

Background Subtraction for the SECCHI/COR1 Telescope Aboard STEREO

COR1 is an internally occulted Lyot coronagraph, part of the Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI) instrument suite aboard the twin Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) spacecraft. Because the front objective lens is subjected to a full solar flux, the images are dominated by instrumental scattered light which has to be removed to uncover the underlying K corona data. We describe a procedure for removing the instrumental background from COR1 images. F coronal emission is subtracted at the same time. The resulting images are compared with simultaneous data from the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory Mk4 coronagraph. We find that the background subtraction technique is successful in coronal streamers, while the baseline emission in coronal holes (i.e. between plumes) is suppressed. This is an expected behavior of the background subtraction technique. The COR1 radiometric calibration is found to be either 10 – 15% lower, or 5 – 10% higher than that of the Mk4, depending on what value is used for the Mk4 plate scale, while an earlier study found the COR1 radiometric response to be ∼ 20% higher than that of the Large Angle Spectroscopic Coronagraph (LASCO) C2 telescope. Thus, the COR1 calibration is solidly within the range of other operating coronagraphs. The background levels in both COR1 telescopes have been quite steady in time, with the exception of a single contamination event on 30 January 2009. Barring too many additional events of this kind, there is every reason to believe that both COR1 telescopes will maintain usable levels of scattered light for the remainder of the STEREO mission.     

The lifetime of the OH radical in comets at 1 AU

It has been shown that the photochemical lifetime of OH in comets is a function of the comet's radial velocity. The calculated lifetime at 1 AU can vary between 6.9 × 10⁴ to 2.1 × 10⁵ sec for radial velocities that vary from ?58 to +59 km/sec. A comparison between the scale lengths observed for three comets and those calculated based upon the theoretical lifetime has been made. This comparison shows that in two of the comets the lifetime derived from the scale lengths is a factor of 1.7 larger than the theoretical lifetime. Suggestions are made about the origin of this discrepancy.     

Correlation Between the Magnetic Field and Plasma Parameters at 1 AU

The physical parameters of the solar wind observed in-situ near 1 AU have been studied for several decades, and relationships between them, such as the positive correlation between the solar wind plasma temperature, \(T\), and velocity, \(V\), and the negative correlation between density, \(N\), and velocity, \(V\), are well known. However, the magnetic field intensity, \(B\), does not appear to be well correlated with any individual plasma parameter. In this article, we discuss previously under-reported correlations between \(B\) and the combined plasma parameters \(\sqrt{N V^{2}} \) as well as between \(B\) and \(\sqrt{NT}\). These two correlations are strong during periods of corotating interaction regions and high-speed streams, and moderate during intervals of slow solar wind. The results indicate that the magnetic pressure in the solar wind is well correlated both with the plasma dynamic pressure and the thermal pressure.     

Are interplanetary magnetic clouds manifestations of coronal transients at 1 AU?

Using proxy data for the occurrence of those mass ejections from the solar corona which are directed earthward, we investigate the association between the post-1970 interplanetary magnetic clouds of Klein and Burlaga (1982) and coronal mass ejections. The evidence linking magnetic clouds following shocks with coronal mass ejections is striking; six of nine clouds observed at Earth were preceded an appropriate time earlier by meter-wave type II radio bursts indicative of coronal shock waves and coronal mass ejections occurring near central meridian. During the selected control periods when no clouds were detected near Earth, the only type II bursts reported were associated with solar activity near the limbs. Where the proxy solar data to be sought are not so clearly suggested, that is, for clouds preceding interaction regions and clouds within cold magnetic enhancements, the evidence linking the clouds and coronal mass ejections is not as clear; proxy data usually suggest many candidate mass-ejection events for each cloud. Overall, the data are consistent with and support the hypothesis suggested by Klein and Burlaga that magnetic clouds observed with spacecraft at 1 AU are manifestations of solar coronal mass ejection transients.     

Sungrazing Comets: Properties of Nuclei and in Situ Detectability of Cometary Ions at 1 AU

A one-dimensional sublimation model for cometary nuclei is used to derive size limits for the nuclei of sungrazing comets and to estimate oxygen ion fluxes at 1 AU from their evaporation. Given that none of the ≈300 sungrazers detected by the SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) was observed after disappearing behind the sun, and that small nuclei with a radius of ≈3.5 m could be observed, it is assumed that all SOHO sungrazers were completely destroyed. For the case that sublimation alone is sufficient for destruction, the model yields an upper size limit as a function of nuclear density ?, albedo A, and perihelion distance q. If the density of the nuclei is that typical of porous ice (600 kg m⁻³), the maximum size is 63 m. These results confirm similar model calculations by Weissman (1983). An analytical expression is derived that approximates the model results well. We discuss possible modifications of our results by different disruption mechanisms. While disruption by thermal stress does not change the upper size limits significantly, they may be somewhat increased by tidal disruption (up to 100 m for a density of 600 kg m⁻³), dependent on the isotropy of the sublimation process and the tensile strength of the comet. Implications for the Kreutz family of sungrazers are discussed.Oxygen ions from the sublimation of sungrazing comets form a tail. Fluxes from this tail are sufficiently high to be measured at 1 AU by particle detectors on spacecraft, but the duration of a tail crossing is only about half an hour. Therefore, the probability of a spacecraft actually encountering a tail of an evaporating sungrazer is only of the order of 2% per year.     

Interstellar scintillation measurements of pulsars at 326.5 MHz

We have measured the decorrelation frequency (f _v ) and decorrelation time (t _v ) for 15 pulsars. We show by combining our data with those of others thatfv∫ DM^-1.79±0.14 andt _v ∫ DM^-0.80±0.15 up to a dispersion measure (DM) of about 60 cm³ pc. The combined data set does not form a complete sample, but the relations obtained from our measurements on 14 pulsars, which form almost a complete sample up to 41 cm³ pc, are consistent with the above relations, suggesting that these relations are not seriously affected by selection effects. The relations are broadly in agreement with those expected from a homogeneous interstellar medium and are in disagreement with earlier conclusions by others that these relations steepen even for low-DM pulsars. The agreement suggests that the local interstellar medium is homogeneous at least up to a distance of about 2 kpc.     

Solar Wind Statistics at 1 AU: Alfven Speed and Plasma Beta

The phenomenon of MHD wave refraction is useful in interpreting the properties of the magnetic fluctuations in certain parcels of solar wind. In the physics of MHD wave refraction, variations in the Alfvén speed V_Alf play a dominant role. Here, we compile statistics of the 1-min averages of V_Alf at the location of the ACE spacecraft during its first 5 years of operation. We find that monthly distributions of V_Alf are close to log-normal, with standard deviations σ_V as small as 0.11 in the logarithm. Variations in the monthly mean V_Alf are correlated significantly with sunspot number. We also compile monthly distributions of the plasma β parameter. The distributions of both V_Alf and β are significantly narrower than they would be if the various solar wind parameters were statistically independent. In the T_p–V_Alf plane, we find a zone of avoidance at low V_Alf: for V_Alf ≤10 – 15 km/s, there are no samples in the 1-min data that are cooler than T_p = 10 000 – 15 000 K. This feature can be understood in the context of MHD wave refraction, although other explanations are also possible.     

Long-Term Variability of the Polytropic Index of Solar Wind Protons at 1 AU

Spacecraft data from the OMNI database were used to calculate the value of the polytropic index of the solar wind by fitting the logarithms of proton density and temperature in selected time intervals from 1 January 1995 to 30 June 2012. Bernoulli’s integral and the correlation coefficient were used to filter the results. An alternative method based on the maximization of the correlation coefficient was employed to confirm our results. The long-term behavior of the polytropic index we obtained is found to be virtually identical for both methods. We noticed a characteristic behavior of the estimated polytropic index values, particularly from 1995 to 2006, which tends to have a periodicity of about one year. The distribution of the polytropic index is best described by a κ-Gaussian distribution with mean ≈?1.8 and standard deviation ≈?2.4. We finally examined the possible correlation between the polytropic index values and solar activity.     

Low energy ions in corotating interaction regions at 1 AU: Observations

The spacecraft ISEE-3 was launched in August 1978 and subsequently placed in orbit about the Sun-Earth L1 libration point where it continuously monitored the particles and fields in interplanetary space until mid-1982. The ISEE-3 Energetic Proton Anisotropy Spectrometer makes 3-dimensional intensity measurements of 35–1600 keV, Z ? 1 ions. This data is used in conjunction with simultaneous solar wind plasma and magnetic field data from the same spacecraft to study the properties of ions in interaction regions lying at the leading edges of nine corotating high speed solar wind streams observed during October 1978–July 1979. Seven streams have an enhancement of ? 300 keV ions in the compressed fast stream plasma between the stream interface and interaction region trailing edge. These enhancements are associated with plasma heating to above 3 × 10⁵ K, have soft spectra (spectral index ～ 4.5?6.0) and in five cases show anti-solar streaming in the solar wind frame.     

Eruptions of comet Hale-Bopp at 6.5 AU

The prodigious output of dust and CO observed in comet Hale-Bopp at a heliocentric distance of 6.5 AU is strongly suggestive of high-pressure release of material from liquified subsurface domains rather than thermal evaporation from a sunlit patch of frozen CO.     

Eruptions of Comet Hale-Bopp at 6.5 AU

The prodigious output of dust and CO observed in comet Hale-Bopp at a heliocentric distance of 6.5 AU is strongly suggestive of high-pressure release of material from liquified subsurface domains rather than thermal evaporation from a sunlit patch of frozen CO. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

N-Body simulations of growth from 1 km planetesimals at 0.4 AU

We present N-body simulations of planetary accretion beginning with 1 km radius planetesimals in orbit about a 1 M_⊙ star at 0.4 AU. The initial disk of planetesimals contains too many bodies for any current N-body code to integrate; therefore, we model a sample patch of the disk. Although this greatly reduces the number of bodies, we still track in excess of 10⁵ particles. We consider three initial velocity distributions and monitor the growth of the planetesimals. The masses of some particles increase by more than a factor of 100. Additionally, the escape speed of the largest particle grows considerably faster than the velocity dispersion of the particles, suggesting impending runaway growth, although no particle grows large enough to detach itself from the power law size-frequency distribution. These results are in general agreement with previous statistical and analytical results. We compute rotation rates by assuming conservation of angular momentum around the center of mass at impact and that merged planetesimals relax to spherical shapes. At the end of our simulations, the majority of bodies that have undergone at least one merger are rotating faster than the breakup frequency. This implies that the assumption of completely inelastic collisions (perfect accretion), which is made in most simulations of planetary growth at sizes 1 km and above, is inappropriate. Our simulations reveal that, subsequent to the number of particles in the patch having been decreased by mergers to half its initial value, the presence of larger bodies in neighboring regions of the disk may limit the validity of simulations employing the patch approximation.     

Anisotropy of > 35keV ions in corotating particle events at 1 AU

The anisotropy of 35–1000 keV ions in two corotating particle events associated with high-speed solar wind streams at 1 AU is examined in terms of the diffusion-convection propagation model using data from the Energetic Proton Anisotropy Spectrometer on ISEE-3. The calculated diffusive anisotropy in the solar wind frame is found to be sunward and closely field-aligned, with a nearly energy-independent magnitude of ～ 40%. For one stream, using the Voyager 2 data of Decker et al. (1981), a positive gradient of ～ 100%/AU is found for ? 50 keV ions between 1 and 4 AU. The observations do not appear to support the scatter-free propagation model and indicate that ions with energies as low as a few tens of keV may be in diffusive equilibrium with the solar wind in this class of events.     

Solar Cycle Variation of the Interplanetary Forward Shock Drivers Observed at 1 AU

Forecasting space weather more accurately from solar observations requires an understanding of the variations in physical properties of interplanetary (IP) shocks as solar activity changes. We examined the characteristics (occurrence rate, physical parameters, and types of shock driver) of IP shocks. During the period of 1995 – 2001, a total of 249 forward IP shocks were observed. In calculating the shock parameters, we used the solar wind data from Wind at the solar minimum period (1995 – 1997) and from ACE since 1998 including the solar maximum period (1999 – 2001). Most of IP shocks (68%) are concentrated in the solar maximum period. The values of physical quantities of IP shocks, such as the shock speed, the sonic Mach number, and the ratio of plasma density compression, are larger at solar maximum than at solar minimum. However, the ratio of IMF compression is larger at solar minimum. The IP shock drivers are classified into four groups: magnetic clouds (MCs), ejecta, high speed streams (HSSs), and unidentified drivers. The MC is the most dominant and strong shock driver and 150 out of total 249 IP shocks are driven by MCs. The MC is a principal and very effective shock driver not only at solar maximum but also at solar minimum, in contrast to results from previous studies, where the HSS is considered as the dominant IP shock driver.