The idea of nature in the east in comparison with the west

Conclusion — Contemporary Implications According to Buddhist philosophy, men constitute just one class of living beings. As such, they have no right to unlimited use of natural resources. Also men have no right to unlimited exploitation of animal and plant life, which forms part of Nature. Until recently, Westerners or moderns tended to think that men were quite separate and different from the natural world. This assumption is ungrounded and unreasonable. It has brought about devastation. Men incur retaliation by nature.In order to deal with the difficult situation that has come about, we must seek a solution that is both objective and subjective. On the objective side, we must discard the arrogance of supposing that men are entitled to exploit the natural world at their own will, without limit and regardless of the consequences. It is not appropriate to maintain the idea of conquering nature. Nature should be met with affection. In this connection, we emphasize that the world of nature should not be monopolized by a few countries. The whole natural world should be shared by all mankind. We cannot but feel angry at the small, limited number of countries which totally control the reserves of a limited energy supply, and which are extravagantly wasting what nature has entrusted to them. Just as individual egoism must be curtailed and placed under control, so national and ethnic egoism also should be restrained in the name of justice and respect for nature.On the subjective side, there is need for correction of the opinion of moderns that the progress of mankind consists in the unlimited satisfaction of human desire for material objects. Buddhism taught satisfaction with what is given to men. To know being satisfied was thought to be the way to spiritual happiness. The key to the relationship between man and the environment may very well lie in the control of our desires according to this concept of satisfaction. For that purpose our desire should be scaled to the possibilities of nature conceived as supporting human existence. Nature is not an entity to confront us as if it were quite different from us; it is something to embrace, as we might think it as that from which we cannot separate ourselves. Admitting the disinction between man and nature, we have to think how to live with the knowledge that nature is necessary to us.     

可持续性发展与现代生态自然观

人与自然的关系问题的关键是人类如何看待自己和对待自然。随着人类社会的发展,人与自然的矛盾性质和特点发生了时代性的变化,表现为人类生存环境意识的觉醒和人类对生活质量、目标的反省。为了人类的生存,人类必须理性的解决人与自然的关系,充分认识可持续性发展的重要性,树立现代生态自然观的思想,避免人类与生存环境之间关系的恶化,真正达到人与自然的协调进化。     

Natural Hazards: Geology,Engineering, Agriculture,and Sociopolitical/Humanitarian Considerations for the Twenty-First Century

Dangers from natural hazards have been characterized quantitatively by national and international committees of geoscientists based on technical advances in geochemistry and geophysics (sensu lato). The current status of knowledge on natural hazards is reviewed with particular emphasis on comet/asteroid impact, earthquakes, and volcanoes. All these hazards are survivable by the world's population if appropriate measures are taken over the next century and millennium. Ideas for mitigation include: general use of weathered volcanic ash and power-station fly ash to make pozzolana cement for strengthening buildings, and stabilizing weak ground and hillsides prone to slumping; long-term storage of grains under nitrogen, together with other techniques for maintaining viability of stored food; drilling of tunnels under major cities to facilitate traffic flow, and for protection against impact of bolides and bombs; design of sea and lake fronts to guard against tsunamis from earthquakes and asteroid impact. The food-storage proposals could be tailored to help farmers obtain a regular income while producing a higher crop yield than needed for current food supply. The land modification plans would provide technical challenges and new business activities for civil engineers, lawyers, real-estate professionals, and city planners. It is truly tragic that genuine ideas for mitigation of natural hazards are being implemented at a snail's pace while funding for weapons flourishes around much of the world. The early development of my thinking on hazards is an example of the typical disconnection between “scientific expertise” and actual day-to-day planning decisions. As a farmer's boy interested in civil engineering and land planning in an ecological context, I summarize old and new ideas in an effort to bridge this disconnection, and facilitate the planned transfer of funding from weapons to actions that enhance human well being. Because the actions are international in their basic nature and ecological in character, I hope that they will help to generate a feeling of “One world that must be loved, not abused.” We belong to one biological species, Homo supposedly sapiens sapiens. We must progress beyond tribal, ethnic, and other divisive matters associated with wars and civilian conflicts. The rich must help the poor. Geology and civil engineering can provide important worldwide cooperative connections.     

The Dodo: from extinction to the fossil record

The dodo, Raphus cucullatus (Aves, Columbidae), has become one of the most famous birds in the world, a true icon of extinction. Known from a few contemporary illustrations and accounts, probably more has been written about it than any other species, yet we know practically nothing about the bird in life. Recent excavations on Mauritius are now revealing the ecology and habitat of this iconic bird, and providing new information as to why it was so vulnerable to human interference.     

环境矿物材料基本性能：无机界矿物天然自净化功能

重点阐述环境矿物材料基本性能，包括矿物表面吸附、孔道过滤、结构调整、离子交换、化学活性、物理效应、纳米效应及与生物交互作用等，旨在发掘、凝炼并新提出物理方法和化学方法之后与有机界生物同效的无机界矿物天然自净化功能的基础理论与应用方法，以发展和完善无机矿物与有机生物所共同构筑的自然界中存在的天然自净化系统，并就目前笔者在黄铁矿、锰钾矿、金红石、蛭石、蒙脱石、苋铁铁钒等天然矿物方面已经完成和正在开展的一系列环境矿物材料研究工作进行了举例说明。     

Bounding difference: Intersectionality and the material production of gender, caste, class and environment in Nepal

Current theorising in human geography draws attention to the relational emergence of space and society, challenging ideas of difference that rely on fixed identities and emphasising the importance of the everyday in the production of social inequalities. Similarly, feminist political ecology has emphasised the role of ‘nature’ or ‘environment’ in the production of subjectivities such that ideas of gender and nature arise in relation to each other. In this paper I build from these insights to explore the ways in which the embodied performance of gender, caste and other aspects of social difference collapse the distinction between the material and the symbolic. Symbolic ideas of difference are produced and expressed through embodied interactions that are firmly material. Through this kind of conceptualisation, I hope to push forward debates in geography on nature and feminist political ecology on how to understand the intersectional emergence of subjectivities, difference and socio-natures. Importantly, it is the symbolic meanings of particular spaces, practices and bodies that are (re)produced through everyday activities including forest harvesting, agricultural work, food preparation and consumption, all of which have consequences for both ecological processes and social difference. Through the performance of everyday tasks, not only are ideas of gender, caste and social difference brought into view, but the embodied nature of difference that extends beyond the body and into the spaces of everyday life is evident. I use ethnographic evidence from rural Nepal to explore the ways in which boundaries between bodies, spaces, ecologies and symbolic meanings of difference are produced and maintained relationally through practices of work and ritual.     

全新世环境考古研究进展

环境考古研究是国际上的热点问题之一,尤其是针对全新世以来的研究.以往的研究主要集中在气候突变事件对新石器文化的影响、人类对环境变迁的调整与适应、人类对于环境的影响与干预以及史前农业与气候环境的相关等方面.研究结果表明:极端气候事件的确对人类文化与农业文明产生了深远影响,但是人类也一定程度上对气候变迁做出了调整与响应.尽管在很长时间内,人类处于被动角色,但是随着时间延续,人与自然间关系也发生重大变动,逐步演变为人类对于自然的强烈影响与干预.目前各国科学家对此两个问题的讨论已经逐步摆脱定性阶段,开始向定量化方向发展.孢粉、磁化率、有机质等代用指标的运用,使得这一领域具有了更为广阔的前景和生命力.史前农业的研究牵涉的内容较为复杂,包括农业起源、农业传播以及农业发展过程中的诸多问题,它们与气候以及人类活动的关系一直是环境考古学家努力探索的方向,至今该领域的研究仍然存在很大争论和分歧.     

从生产资产到生态资产：资产—资本完备性

本研究探讨从生产资产（produc edassets）到生态资产的完备化理论。其内容主要包括：资产-资本完备化;生态资产定义、构成、分类与比较;经济权与完备化,为该研究的第一部分内容。首先,回顾了国内外环境、资源与生态经济学领域有关资产和资本的研究概况,指出当前该领域的前沿热点之一是从生产资产走向生态资产的综合与系统化,这一发展趋势突出体现在关于资产-资本的完备化研究。通过简要地分析新古典经济学中资产和资本范畴的局限性及其所产生的不完备性,总结出其主要表现是概念不完备性、价值不完备性和权义不完备性,而价值不完备性是当前研究的核心问题。在此基础上,进一步评述了现代经济学在资产或资本完备化研究中所取得的重要进展及有待解决的重大问题。该文从系统学意义上提出,推出完备化过程首先需要建立系统资产和资本概念,并进一步讨论了系统资产和资本的基本内涵,提出了资产-资本完备化的 5个法则。     

Parallel currents in the natural and social sciences

Einstein's relativity and the subsequent quantum theory have split physicists into two camps. One argues that the apparent inconsistencies between the mechanistic order of Newtonian physics and the holistic properties of matter revealed by relativity and quantum theory will eventually be resolved within an overall mechanistic order. The second argues that these holistic properties are genuine and require a drastic change in our overall world view. This tension between the mechanistic and holistic conceptions of the world has always existed in the life, human and social sciences. The force behind their emergence and development was the dialectical tension created by the inconsistencies between the mechanistic-Cartesian order, which dominated science, and the holistic properties which are apparent in the domains of life and human society. This recent split among physicists thus creates a new reality, in which the tension between the holistic and mechanistic conceptions of the world is no longer a tension between the scientific natural sciences and the non-scientific ‘humanities’, but rather the tension of science as a whole. The paper discusses the development of these parallel currents in the natural and social sciences and explores their implications.     

Earth support systems: Threatened? why? what can we do?

The most important concept to emerge in the 20th century was the recognition that sustainability is threatened. A sustainable society is one that functions and lives in such harmony with earth systems that future generations will be able to function with equal or greater ease and the quality of life will in no way be diminished. Evidence of threats to sustainability is found in: global energy use; global climate change; availability of sufficient safe water; degradation of soil on agricultural lands; food production for a global population of 9,000 million by 2050; accelerated extinction rates and loss of biodiversity; human under- and over-nourishment; and the spread of diseases. Ignorance borne of alienation from nature deprives us of sensitivity to the threats human activities cause. Alienation may be traced to the agricultural revolution, but has become widespread and even inescapable for many with massive control of energy and the industrial revolution, dependence on machines, and urbanization. With the control of enough energy to dominate nature and the achievement of a high, but transient, level of wealth, a world view extolling growth—led by the highly industrialized nations, but now being emulated in the developing countries—has committed the world to an unsustainable path. Because of this, world societies must work to find practical “sustainability” world views to help guide our future choices. Wise choices will depend upon good scientific understanding and must be based upon a deep respect for the non-human world and a concern for the future. The environmental meaning of different world views, whether founded in the world religions or in nonreligious philosophy, share a common concern to promote an equitable, harmonious, and sustainable relationship between humanity and nature. The similarities in pragmatic meaning in relation to nature of, e.g., Christian stewardship and Deep Ecology, illustrate this. Our attention must not be directed towards alternative symbolic or linguistic vocabularies, but toward the practical environmental commitments that different world views entail. Our problems have global reach and many of them are urgent, but they are not intrinsically unsolvable. We must seek ways to find and use common ground in the search for sustainability. We must work together, but remember that each of us contributes to the final outcome.     

Vitreous state in nature—Origin and properties

Vitreous materials are quite routinely found in natural settings. Most of them are aluminosilicates, which often occur in large deposits. Considering the geological formations in which naturally occurring vitreous aluminosilicates are found, they have generally remained stable for more than 1 Ma on the earth's surface, even in different geological and climatic environments. These non-crystalline solids played a very important role in the development of ancient human civilizations, long before the introduction of metallic tools. Today, however, the properties of natural glasses are of interest to mankind for completely different reasons. For example, industrial glasses are used today for encapsulating toxic wastes, especially radioactive waste, which remains active for centuries or more, in order to prevent the unwanted transfer of harmful materials to the environment. The chemical compositions of industrially produced glasses are in large part different from the compositions of natural glasses. Little is quantitatively known about the stability of industrial glasses over very long periods of time (>10,000 years). However, the physical and chemical stability of natural aluminosilicate glasses is known to extend over very long periods of time.The advancement of technological design to prevent or at least minimize the melt down of toxic waste during the encapsulation process is currently a major challenge, using glasses of natural chemical composition. Brecciated glass, which is found frequently in natural settings, provides a special clue to the possibility of producing vitreous solids by sintering glass fragments without melting the cullets. It is essential to prevent melting of the cullets because the melt has the potential of chemically reacting with the toxic waste.This paper summarizes the geological, chemical, and physical facts concerning naturally produced glasses, and seeks to establish a recognized database for further research in the domain of understanding the glass-forming processes that occur in nature. Furthermore, the authors hope to stimulate research into the utilization of natural resources that to solve the problem of storing of toxic waste safely.Major and trace element data have been collected over the past 100 years. These data constitute a sufficient basis for the chemical characterization of natural glasses. More information about the major elements is not required, in order to understand the chemical properties of these materials. On the other hand, large gaps in compositional data exist where other related components are concerned: e.g., in the case of “water-species”, with its different forms of bonding in silicates or oxygen (oxygen fugacity), CO₂-, sulphur - or hydrocarbons (methane)-, hydrogen-, chlorine-and fluorine-species. All these components have a significant impact on the properties of glasses, even when present only in minor quantities. Glass textures and crystal morphologies reflect the processes of nucleation and crystal growth in a glass-forming matrix during the cooling and reheating cycles which are currently not thoroughly understood. In nature, the processes that led to the formation of vitreous materials are very different from those used in the production of industrial glasses. The different genetic conditions under which glass formation occurs permit differentiation between magmatic and metamorphic vitreous solids. Sedimentary and biogenetic processes also contribute to the formation of non-crystalline solids.     

关于地下断层封闭性的讨论——以东营凹陷为例

本文回顾并分析了前人进行断层封闭性评价的一些基本思路,并根据孔隙压力和有效应力原理提出了断层封闭性评价的新见解,断面的力学性质取决于该断面上有效直应力和剪应力的大小和方向;有效直应力为压性,则断面为封闭的,有效直应力的性质受控于有效地应力,而有效地应力的大小与流体压力密切相关;以前对断层封闭性的评价中所考虑的影响因素是不全面的,完全忽略了流体压力对断层封闭性的影响;断层封闭性不但是变化的,而且其变化是一种瞬时的、多次所复的过程;在探埋藏条件下,断层一般是封闭的。自然界中至少存在着两种引起地层压力快速上升并导致深部断层开启的机制：一是地震触发高压致裂;二是深部流体注入引最的连锁压裂。     

冥古宙的地层学属性:了解地球形成初期古地理背景和演变历史的重要线索*

在现行的前寒武纪地质年代表中,由于太古宙底界没有得到很好的定义,只是被粗略地置于大约4000,Ma,因此也造成了一个没有得到较好定义的“冥古宙”。2个重要的发现促使学者们对冥古宙的地层学属性进行修订:(1)在西澳大利亚Jack山脉太古宙砾岩中发现了真正古老的锆石晶体,其不仅可将地层时代延伸到4404,Ma,而且包含了有关地球早期环境条件较为丰富的信息; (2)在加拿大北部发现了大约4030,Ma的Acasta片麻岩。根据这些发现,并结合月球和陨石的测年数据,就产生了大量有关太阳系和地球早期历史的新知识,包括太阳系与地球的形成、初生地球时期的重要变化及其物质记录和生命的起源及早期进化,这成为修订冥古宙地层学属性的重要基础。修订后的冥古宙代表了地球演变历史的最早时段,即从太阳系和地球在T0=4567,Ma的形成,一直延续到地球上最古老岩石的出现(4030,Ma)。冥古宙还可被进一步划分为2个代:(1)“混沌代”(4567,Ma—4404±8,Ma);(2)“杰克山代”或“锆石代”(4404±8,Ma—4030,Ma)。由于没有保存相应的地层记录,因此冥古宙顶界(4030,Ma)与底界(4567,Ma)的年龄值,仅为一个计时性的年代界限。上述这个被赋予了明确地层学属性的冥古宙,不仅代表了前寒武纪地层学研究的一个重要进展,而且也为深入了解地球早期演变历史提供了许多重要的理念。     

New perspectives on natural resource development in developing countries

The link between natural resources and economic development is more and more regarded as a fact today even though the whole process of development is only partially understood. The awareness has now spread to the developing countries of the world where resources have yet to be developed to bring about an improvement in standards of living especially for rural populations, as well as a general improvement in the quality of life for the people. Unfortunately many of the resources of these countries are still to be surveyed and development planning is often based on flimsy, inadequate or even unreliable natural resource data. The improvement of data base for resource planning would go a long way to ensure more knowledge about natural resources in developing countries and better use and management of the available resources. There are economic, technological and environmental difficulties to be overcome before more efficient natural resource utilization in these countries could be achieved. The role of population growth in resource realization is still clouded with an inconclusive debate. But even more important is the need for technological assistance and the application of modern technology to food and agriculture and to other resources to ensure a better life for the populations of developing countries. Developments in agriculture will need the greatest attention since it is a primary resource which provides employment for large proportions of the population, food for the rural and urban populations and exportable surpluses required for the purchase of industrial goods for use in the other sectors of the economy. The activities of transnational corporations distort developments in agriculture and mining in many developing countries and many of these countries are today making greater moves to realize full sovereignty over their natural resources as a first step towards more efficient and meaningful planning for economic growth and development. Energy resources, and in particular the development of new and renewable sources of energy, present one of the greatest challenges to developing countries. Examples of the development of rural energy systems in China and India are promising to open the way to alternative forms of energy for the rural masses of other similarly placed developing countries. Finally, new developments in the natural resources debate concerned with the sharing of the resources of the oceans as seen in the Law of the Sea Conference are a pointer to a more equitable approach to the use of global resources for the continued development of the developed as well as the developing countries of the world.The view expressed in this paper are those of the author alone and do not necessarily represent those of the United Nations University.     

A conceptual investigation of the ontological commensurability of spatial data infrastructures among different cultures

Humans think and communicate in very flexible and schematic ways, and a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) for the Amazon and associated information system ontologies should reflect this flexibility and the adaptive nature of human cognition in order to achieve semantic interoperability. In this paper I offer a conceptual investigation of SDI and explore the nature of cultural schemas as expressions of indigenous ontologies and the challenges of semantic interoperability across cultures. Cultural schemas are, in essence, our ontologies, but they are markedly different than classical formal ontologies. They shape our ontological commitments to what exists in the world as well as the ways in which we approach and engage the world. And while they help structure our understanding of the world in which we are embedded, they are associative and flexible. They help to focus our attention to particular details of our experiences and give them salience, yet they cannot be simply reduced to a series of extracted features. They allow us to make meaning of the contextualized, cultural experience in which we are always immersed. An SDI is a shared social-technological-informational structure that, if it is to be useful and successful for sustainability in the Amazon, must incorporate and use indigenous cultural schemas. Indigenous communities must have the ability to contribute to the collection of geospatial data and their contributions recognized as legitimate forms of knowledge. In order for the SDI to work, it must recognize the larger cultural landscape to which cultural schemas can connect to the ready-to-hand elements of salient cultural experiences.     

Avoiding the Ghetto through hope and fear: an analysis of immanent technology using ideal types

With over one hundred million smart-phone users in the world, mobile, spatially-aware devices are radically altering how individuals move through and experience both physical and social environments. This article presents a theoretical and methodological framework for engaging the emerging geoweb as part of a longer tradition of research into society and technology. A close reading of Microsoft’s Pedestrian Route Production patent, dubbed the “avoid ghetto GPS”, is used to construct two ideal type futures—one hopeful and one frightening. One where spatial technology ensures efficiency, safety, and new forms of coordination, while the other algorithmically sorts society by race and class. Despite not yet and potentially never existing, the patent offers a viable means through which potential futures are made real in the present. Through comparative analysis of these futures, their underlying commonalities are drawn out, revealing the relationship between technology and the delimitation of human experience. This analysis avoids grand narratives and teleological arguments, while making it possible to draw forth the unthought acceptance within each ideal type for the future: the continuing shift of human life itself towards a teleological, always already-calculated standing-reserve. The work on technology of Martin Heidegger and Herbert Marcuse (re)situate the geoweb within long-standing theoretical work on technology and its role in society, modernity, and capitalism.     

Offspring of Watsuji's theory of milieu (F^udo)

Watsuji Tetsurô (1889–1960), a Japanese philosopher, published in 1935 Fûdo: ningengakuteki kôsatsu, an essay on the relationship between the character of human societies and the natural conditions of their environment, mainly climate. This book has generally been understood as an illustration of geographical determinism, to which belong indeed some of the main supporters of Watsuji's theory. Yet Watsuji himself stated explicitly that his book was not about the influence of the natural environment on human life, but about ‘the structural moment of human existence’, in which the matter is milieu (fûdo) and mediance (fûdosei), not environment (kankyô), and which has much in common with Heidegger's Dasein, although Watsuji contests the Heideggerian precedence of temporality on spatiality. In this respect, Fûdo is the forerunner of a promising trend in cultural geography: studies on the geographical constitution of Being, opening the way to a recosmization of the human.     

成矿作用过程中赤铁矿—磁铁矿之间非氧化还原转变

自然界中铁氧化物的主要存在形式为赤铁矿和磁铁矿,两者之间的相互转变一直是人们关注和研究的热点。磁铁矿和赤铁矿之间的相互转变一直被认为是一个氧化还原反应的结果,反应的发生与一定的氧化剂或还原剂密切相关。然而,近年来一个铁氧化物之间的非氧化还原反应机制被提出,这种非氧化还原反应机制对于认识和了解复杂的成矿作用具有重要的意义。本文阐述了自然界中铁氧化物之间的相互交代结构,对BIF研究和实验学两方面的证据进行了综述,认为这种非氧化还原反应可能存在于很多不同类型的成矿作用过程之中。这种赤铁矿和磁铁矿之间的非氧化还原反应机制具有重要的理论和实际意义:一方面,仅靠地质作用过程中出现磁铁矿或赤铁矿现象不一定就能判别其形成流体的氧化还原状态;另一方面,它可以为勘探含后生赤铁矿的铁矿床提供新的找矿思路,进一步指导深埋在古风化面以下铁矿体的寻找。     

四川省石棉县科落头滑坡形成机理与治理

由自然产生和人类活动引发的滑坡灾害在世界范围内都较普遍,其对人民的生命和财产安全构成了严重威胁,急需对其进行治理。以四川省石棉县新民乡科落头滑坡为例,在分析滑坡形成机理的基础上,进行了设计与施工探讨,为同类滑坡治理提供借鉴。     

Stable isotopes and archaeological geology: the Carrara marble,northern Italy

The principal marble quarries of Italy for the past 2000 years have been those of Carrara. In Roman times, the marble was exported all over the ancient world. Renaissance quarries were opened up in Seravezza; both the Seravezza and the Carrara quarries have been exploited until today. The correct identification of Carrara marble has always been a problem because it was traded so widely in Roman times and was later used to fabricate broken or lost pieces of classical statuary. Many types of geochemical analysis have been tried in order to find distinctive signatures for the recognition of classical marbles, including trace elements, ESR spectroscopy of Mn, thermoluminescence, and stable isotopic ratios. To date, the most promising has been isotopic ratio analysis of oxygen and carbon.In this study, stable isotopic signatures were investigated as a means for distinguishing: (1) the principal quarry areas of the Carrara Commune: Fossacava, Miseglia, and Torano, and the Seravezza Commune; (2) or merely the largely classical quarries of Carrara from the Renaissance quarries of Seravezza; (3) and, most important, the Carrara quarries from other quarries of Greece, Turkey, Italy, and Tunisia in the classical marble data base.Discriminant analysis (DA) of the isotopic analyses showed that the three quarry areas of a Carrara could not be told apart but that they could be told easily from Seravezza. In addition, a “mineralized” Carrara quarry at Mandria, with buff to yellow rather than white marble, was also distinctive. DA also suggests that Carrara can be told from those quarries with which it is presently confused: Paros, in the Aegean Sea; Marmara, in Turkey; and Pentelikon, near Athens.Sr isotopic analysis showed a range in the Carrara and other marbles of Hettangian (Lower Jurassic) age from 0.70778 to 0.70810 which is very different from values found in Paros and Pentelikon. This suggests that Sr might make a good third discriminator for classical marble.