WRF中地形重力波参数化方案在一次华南暖区暴雨形成机制分析中的应用

华南地形复杂多变,局地强对流天气频繁发生又难于预报。要准确模拟华南地区的降水情况必须考虑地形的影响。以发生在云雾山东南侧一次暖区暴雨过程为例,探讨中尺度WRFV3.1版本中新增加的地形重力波拖曳（GWDO）参数化方案对山区暴雨的模拟能力,以及本次暴雨的形成机制。数值试验利用2008年6月5日00:00至2008年6月6日12：00的每6 h一次的NCEP分析资料（水平分辨率为1°×1°）积分36 h对发生在云雾山东南侧暴雨过程进行模拟,通过与实况对比分析后得出：①模式中考虑了GWDO参数化方案的敏感性试验较好地模拟了广东阳江地区强降水的中心和强度,再现了暴雨过程中大尺度环流形势及其演变状况,成功地复制了中尺度低涡的位置及移向,而未考虑此方案的控制试验没能模拟出此次暴雨,其在中心位置和降水强度方面都与实况差别较大。②GWDO参数化方案的引入有效地减少由地形引起的对流层中层纬向风的偏差,比较合理地模拟出了地形对气流的影响,从而使山区暴雨的模拟效果更接近于实况。③由试验得出,地形重力波拖曳可以使能量在中层辐散,导致垂直上升运动加强并使降水加强和降水的范围相对集中,是本次特大暴雨产生的主要原因。     

一次大暴雨过程中地形重力波拖曳作用的研究

利用WRFV3.9数值模式,对2011年6月9-10日发生在湘鄂赣交界附近山区的一次江淮气旋大暴雨天气过程进行模拟.进行了地形重力波拖曳作用的控制试验和不考虑地形重力波拖曳作用的敏感性试验.结果表明,控制试验能较好地再现江淮气旋及其产生的强降水;模式引入地形重力波拖曳后能够更好地模拟出地形附近雨带的中心位置和强度;地形...     

地形重力波拖曳参数化对热带气旋强度和路径预报影响的研究

本文在GRAPES_TMM（Global/Regional Assimilation and Prediction System for Tropical Mesoscale Model）——中国南海台风模式版（面向南海和东南亚）中发展和引进了KA95（Kim and Arakawa,1995）地形重力波拖曳参数化方案（GWDO）,并对2012年主要的9个登陆台风进行了试验对比研究,考察了不同标准Richardson数（Ri_c）的GWDO试验对台风路径和强度预报的影响。结果表明,在引入地形重力波拖曳参数化过程后,模式对台风登陆时路径和强度的预报能力均要有提高,对台风预报时长越长,GWDO的影响也更为显著。对双台风“SAOLA”和“DAMREY”试验结果表明,GWDO对台风外围距台风中心150 km的对流层中下层风速减弱较为明显,减弱了GRAPES区域模式对台风强度预报偏强的现象,对台风强度长时间预报改善更为明显。不同标准Ri_c对重力波拖曳力的计算较为敏感,当Ri_c取1.0时,动能迅速的在低层被频散,能量无法有效地上传;Ri_c取0.25时,大部分的能量在中高层被频散。总的来说,Ri_c取0.75时对台风路径和强度预报改进更为显著,其结果可为业务预报提供指导意义。     

地形重力波拖曳参数化方案在华南中尺度模式（GRAPES）中的应用试验

在华南中尺度模式GRAPES中发展KA95方案地形重力波拖曳参数化方案(GWDO),并对2012年的2月8—12日影响华南冷空气过程、8月23—24日发生在广东的局地性暴雨和5—8月共4个月的KA95方案预报试验进行检验。结果表明,KA95地形重力波拖曳参数化方案的引入,改善了GRAPES模式对冬、春季低层南风偏强和地面温度偏高的现象,一定程度上纠正了在模式积分过程中出现的南风偏差,改正了在业务预报中因南风偏强而导致温度偏差过大的现象;改善了模式对局地强降水强度和落区的预报,减小了大雨和暴雨的漏报率和预报偏差,提高了GRAPES模式对降水的预报效果。      

GWDO参数化在内蒙古东部地区一次暴雨天气的模拟分析

文章以2011年7月24—26日发生在内蒙古东部地区大兴安岭山脉西侧、宝格达山脉南部的一次大到暴雨天气为例,利用WRF3.3.1中尺度模式对这一过程进行数值模拟,探讨地形重力波拖曳(GWDO)参数化方案对山区暴雨的模拟能力,以及本次暴雨的发生机制。通过模拟结果与实况对比分析后得出:①模式中考虑了GWDO参数化方案较好地模拟了此次强降雨的中心位置和落区及强度,根据暴雨过程中大尺度环流形势及其演变状况,较好地得出切变线暴雨以及地形重力波拖曳能导致上升运动加强,并使得暴雨范围相对集中。而未考虑此方案的控制试验没能模拟出此次暴雨,其在中心位置和降水强度方面都与实况差别较大。②通过流场、涡度场等物理量场的对比分析,比较合理地模拟出了地形对气流的影响,从而使山区暴雨的模拟效果更接近于实况。     

青藏高原边坡地形重力波拖曳方案应用的个例研究

本文针对我国西南地区的一次持续性暴雨过程,利用WRF模式引入地形重力波拖曳方案进行120h的模拟,对比结果认为引入地形重力波拖曳的模拟效果总体看来略有优势,并详细分析了不同模拟时段的位势高度场,风场,海平面气压场与降水,其结果认为,引入与未引入地形重力波模拟的差异主要出现在48~72h之后,位势高度场方面,72h之后,在青藏高原主体上引入拖曳方案后的模拟结果相对未引入拖曳方案的结果是正偏差,高原下游地区为负偏差,引入后的模拟相对准确;风场模拟方面同样72h以内的模拟差距较小,72h之后高原上出现一处气旋性涡旋,其中心位置的模拟,引入拖曳方案后的结果相对准确,本次个例中出现的一例西南低涡,两实验都能够较好的模拟出700h Pa的气旋性涡旋;降水模拟的结果表明,在72h之后,对于四川地区降水中心位置的模拟,引入拖曳方案的模拟有所提高,但中心依然过强。这方面主要考虑降水的模拟牵涉模式内部更为复杂的处理过程和其他因素,地形重力波拖曳只是其中一个影响因素而不是核心因素。另外此方案对温度场及海平面气压场模拟的影响不明显。理论上讲引入地形重力波拖曳效应的模拟是物理过程相对更为完善的,在本次个例中模拟效果也略优,但在高原下坡复杂地形处长期应用的模拟效果仍需要更多的测试,将在后续工作中加以完善。      

青藏高原地形重力波拖曳的初步分析及数值模拟研究

针对目前对青藏高原大地形激发的重力波拖曳相关问题还不十分清楚,在GRAPES_Meso模式中引入次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案,通过数值试验初步研究了青藏高原地区次网格地形重力波拖曳的一些相关参数,结果指出:(1)沿30°N地形重力波拖曳的垂直分布显示,阻塞拖曳主要存在于模式的低层(第1—5层),重力波拖曳主要存在于模式的第5—10层;从水平分布看,模式第3层以阻塞拖曳为主,主要位于青藏高原边缘地区,阻塞拖曳大值区沿喜马拉雅山脉走向和青藏高原东坡;模式第5层以重力波拖曳为主,主要位于青藏高原东部地区和云贵高原的北部边缘。(2)弗劳德数和气流绕流高度分析表明,在青藏高原喜马拉雅山脉一带和高原东部边缘地区,气流爬坡能力强,同时在这一地区绕流高度最高;弗劳德数越大的地区绕流高度距离地表越高。(3)采用次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案后,对于低层和高层地形重力波破碎的发生有更准确的描述,地形重力波是向上垂直传播的。(4)个例和批量试验检验结果表明,采用次网格地形重力波拖曳参数化方案对于风场和降水模拟有正效果,提高了模式预报的准确率。     

GRAPES中地形重力波拖曳物理过程的引进和应用试验

在中国新一代全球中期/区域中尺度同化与预报系统(GRAPES)模式中引进了ECMWF地形重力波拖曳物理过程,填补了GRAPES全球中期数值预报系统中物理过程的空白。重新计算了地形重力波过程需要的地形静态资料数据,并与原ECMWF模式的地形静态参数进行了对比分析,验证了模式地形参数的正确性。利用GRAPES模式,进行了地形重力波拖曳物理过程影响的敏感性数值试验;结果表明:引进地形重力波拖曳过程以后,在存在大地形的区域,风场会发生变化,当纬向风遇到青藏高原时,一部分气流会产生爬坡效应而越过高原,使高原上空的西风气流减弱;另一部分气流会绕过高原,在高原的南侧产生绕流;随着模式积分时间的延长,风场变化会越来越明显,地形越复杂,风场的变化也越复杂;连续的模式积分试验结果显示,引进地形重力波过程,可以延长GRAPES模式的可用预报时效,提高了全球形势预报的准确率。通过对一次降水过程的模拟,对地形重力波过程影响降水预报的原因进行了简单分析。结果显示:引进地形重力波拖曳过程后,改变了大气流场的分布,使预报的流场更接近于大气真实状态,从而提高了降水预报的准确率。     

地形重力波拖曳参数化方案在一次陕西极端性暴雨天气过程中的应用

利用中尺度WRF模式进行敏感性试验,分析探讨加入地形重力波拖曳参数化方案(GWDO)后对2013年陕西入夏以来最强的一次暴雨过程的模拟能力和地形影响下强降水的形成机制。本次过程是在高空槽和低涡配合的有利形势下形成的,秦巴山区的地形作用对本次暴雨过程有着重要影响。在引入地形重力波参数化方案后,模式对关中大暴雨中心的模拟能力有所提高,强降水落区及量级与实况更为接近,较为有效地改善了环流形势及主要影响系统的模拟。在引入地形重力波参数化方案后,这一地区环流进行调整,有利的水汽条件和对流不稳定配合强烈的上升运动,是影响关中地区强降水的重要因素。该参数化方案对陕西暴雨预报具有一定的适用性,但是对陕南的暴雨区模拟还具有较大的误差,需要进一步改进。     

地形效应引起的局地扰动对华南降水预报的影响研究

利用中尺度模式对一次华南强降水过程进行模拟分析发现,模式对南岭-武夷山地区的降水存在漏报或预报强度偏弱的现象。通过与提前12 h预报结果的对比看出,引起这种预报误差的主要原因在于本次预报的模式初值中未包含地形强迫造成的小尺度局地扰动信息。对地形重力波拖曳和阻塞流拖曳参数化方案的比较发现,阻塞流拖曳力强度明显强于地形重力波拖曳,它有可能导致雨带位置偏离实况。一系列的初值敏感性试验结果表明,南岭-武夷山地区上空850~500 hPa的风场扰动增量对改进本次降水预报效果的影响最关键。      

Fetch Limited Drag Coefficients

Measurements made at a tower located 2 km off the coast of Denmark inshallow water during the Risø Air Sea Experiment (RASEX) are analyzedto investigate the behaviour of the drag coefficient in the coastal zone.For a given wind speed, the drag coefficient is larger during conditions ofshort fetch (2-5 km) off-shore flow with younger growing waves than it isfor longer fetch (15-25 km) on-shore flow. For the strongest on-shorewinds, wave breaking enhances the drag coefficient. Variation of the neutral drag coefficient in RASEX is dominated byvariation of wave age, frequency bandwidth of the wave spectra and windspeed. The frequency bandwidth is proportional to the broadness of the waveheight spectra and is largest during conditions of light wind speeds. Usingthe RASEX data, simple models of the drag coefficient and roughness length are developed in terms of wind speed, wave age and bandwidth. An off-shoreflow model of the drag coefficient in terms of nondimensional fetch isdeveloped for situations when the wave state is not known.     

Drag of the sea surface

It is shown how the drag of the sea surface can be computed from the wind speed and the sea state. The approach, applicable both for fully developed and for developing seas, is based on conservation of momentum in the boundary layer above the sea, which allows one to relate the drag to the properties of the momentum exchange between the sea waves and the atmosphere.The total stress is split into two parts: a turbulent part and a wave-induced part. The former is parameterized in terms of mixing-length theory. The latter is calculated by integration of the wave-induced stress over all wave numbers. Usually, the effective roughness is given in terms of the empirical Charnock relation. Here, it is shown how this relation can be derived from the dynamical balance between turbulent and wave-induced stress. To this end, the non-slip boundary conditions is assigned to the wave surface, and the local roughness parameter is determined by the scale of the molecular sublayer.The formation of the sea drag is then described for fully developed and developing seas and for light to high winds.For the Charnock constant, a value of about 0.018–0.030 is obtained, depending on the wind input, which is well within the range of experimental data.It is shown that gravity-capillary waves with a wavelength less than 5 cm play a minor role in the momentum transfer from wind to waves. Most of the momentum is transferred to decimeter and meter waves, so that the drag of developing seas depends crucially on the form of the wave spectrum in the corresponding high wavenumber range.The dependence of the drag on wave age depends sensitively on the dependence of this high wavenumbertail on wave age. If the tail is wave-age independent, the sea drag appears to be virtually independent of wave age. If the tail depends on wave age, the drag also does. There is contradictory evidence as to the actual dependence. Therefore, additional experiments are needed.The investigation was in part supported by the Netherlands Geosciences Foundation (GOA) with financial aid from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).     

二维地形的地形阻力

讨论了在上部稳定层覆盖的不稳定大气边界层中,二维地形扰动所引起的上层波动以及扰动速度的动量通量输送,表明在大气低层层结不稳定时,波动仍可能在大气动量平衡中起明显作用。     

Drag Partition for Regularly-Arrayed Rough Surfaces

Vegetation and other roughness elements distributed across a surface can providesignificant protection against wind erosion by extracting momentum from the flowand thereby reducing the shear stress acting at the surface. A theoretical model haspreviously been presented to specify the partition of drag forces for rough surfacesand to predict required vegetation density to suppress wind erosion. However, themodel parameters have not yet been constrained and the predictive capacity of themodel has remained uncertain. A wind-tunnel study was conducted to measure thedrag partition for a range of roughness densities and to parameterise the model inorder to improve its range of potential applicability. The drag forces acting on bothan array of roughness elements and the intervening surface were measured independentlyand simultaneously using new drag balance instrumentation. A detailed measure of thespatial heterogeneity of surface shear stresses was also made using Irwin sensors. Thedata agreed well with previous results and confirmed the general form of the model.Analysis of the drag partition confirmed the parameter definition = C_R/C_S(where C_R and C_S are roughness element and surface drag coefficients,respectively) and a constant proportional difference between the mean and maximumsurface shear stress was found. The results of this experiment suggest that the definitionfor m, the surface shear stress inhomogeneity parameter, should be revised, although thetheoretical and physical reasons for including this parameter in the model appear to bevalid. Best-fit values for m ranged from 0.53 to 0.58.     

如何优化降阻材料在防雷接地工程中的降阻效果

分析了目前在防雷工程中应用的接地降阻材料的降阻机理、降阻效果和使用中存在的问题;对防雷接地工程中如何因地制宜选择降阻材料提出了具体的意见;探讨了如何发挥降阻材料的降阻效果,减少其对接地装置的腐蚀,延长接地装置的使用寿命;提出了接地降阻材料施工工艺的优化方案,以及在使用降阻材料时应注意的事项.     

Determination Of The Surface Drag Coefficient

This study examines the dependence of the surface drag coefficienton stability, wind speed, mesoscale modulation of the turbulent flux and method of calculation of the drag coefficient. Data sets over grassland, sparse grass, heather and two forest sites are analyzed. For significantly unstable conditions, the drag coefficient does not depend systematically on z/L but decreases with wind speed for fixed intervals of z/L, where L is the Obukhov length. Even though the drag coefficient for weak wind conditions is sensitive to the exact method of calculation and choice of averaging time, the decrease of the drag coefficient with wind speed occurs for all of the calculation methods. A classification of flux calculation methods is constructed, which unifies the most common previous approaches.The roughness length corresponding to the usual Monin–Obukhovstability functions decreases with increasing wind speed. This dependence on wind speed cannot be eliminated by adjusting the stability functions. If physical, the decrease of the roughness length with increasing wind speed might be due to the decreasing role of viscous effectsand streamlining of the vegetation, although these effects cannot be isolated from existing atmospheric data.For weak winds, both the mean flow and the stress vector often meander significantly in response to mesoscale motions. The relationship between meandering of the stress and wind vectors is examined. For weak winds, the drag coefficient can be sensitive to the method of calculation, partly due to meandering of the stress vector.     

Impact Of Dominant Waves On Sea Drag

The impact of air-flow separation from breaking dominant waves is analyzed.This impact results from the correlation of the pressure drop with theforward slope of breaking waves. The pressure drop is parameterized via thesquare of the reference mean velocity. The slope of breaking waves isrelated to the statistical properties of the wave breaking fronts describedin terms of the average total length of breaking fronts. Assuming that thedominant waves are narrow and that the length of breaking fronts is relatedto the length of the contour of the breaking zone it is shown that theseparation stress supported by dominant waves is proportional to thebreaking probability of dominant waves. The breaking probability of dominantwaves, in turn, is defined by the dominant wave steepness. With thedominant wave steepness increasing, the breaking probability is increasedand so does the separation stress. This mechanism explains wave age (youngerwaves being steeper) and finite depth (the spectrum is steeper in shallowwater) dependence of the sea drag. It is shown that dominant waves support asignificant fraction of total stress (sea drag) for young seas due to theair-flow separation that occurs when they break. A good comparison of themodel results for the sea drag with several data sets is reported.     

Drag and drag partition on rough surfaces

An analytic treatment of drag and drag partition on rough surfaces is given. The aims are to provide simple predictive expressions for practical applications, and to rationalize existing laboratory and atmospheric data into a single framework. Using dimensional analysis and two physical hypotheses, theoretical predictions are developed for total stress (described by the square root of the canopy drag coefficient), stress partition (described by the ratio _S/ of the stress _s on the underlying ground surface to total stress ), zero-plane displacement and roughness length. The stress partition prediction is the simple equation _S/= 1/(1+), where = C_RC_S the ratio of element and surface drag coefficients. This prediction agrees very well with data and is free of adjustable constants. Other predictions also agree well with a range of laboratory and atmospheric data.     

Turbulent Form Drag On Anisotropic Three-Dimensional Orography

Results are presented from a large number of numerical simulations performed to investigate the dependence of the turbulentform drag on three-dimensional ellipsoidal hills upon aspect ratio and wind direction. For isolatedisotropic hills the results are, as expected, found to beindependent of wind direction. However directionaldependence rapidly becomes important as the ridges are elongated,and the results quickly converge onto those obtained in the limitingcase of two-dimensional ridges. Based on the numerical results,a simple parametrization of the drag is proposed.     

Drag coefficient modeling for the near coastal zone

Using the JONSWAP spectrum for describing the surface wave state in the near coastal zone, models for the roughness length and the drag coefficient are used to simulate the dependence of the wind stress on fetch and depth. The results of each model are then compared with a compiled set of past investigations of the neutral drag coefficient over a variety of conditions. It is found that the models of Donelan, Hsu, and Kitaigorodskii correctly predict the trends in the drag coefficient with fetch and depth. Although it did not account for all the observed variations in the neutral drag coefficient. Kitaigorodskii's model, when incorporating the JONSWAP spectrum, more accurately simulated the slopes of the various C_DN regressions against windspeed.