Medium-range forecasting of the extent of forest fire hazard from meteorological conditions

A new method of medium-range forecasting of a class of fire hazard is developed based on more precise accounting of accumulated moisture deficiency that is reflected by the Nesterov standard index. A physico-statistical interpretation of hydrodynamic forecasts of fields of meteorological variables is used for finding of prognostic values of the elements of the fire hazard index, using forecasts of maximum air temperature and precipitation in the Novosibirsk region from the earlier developed scheme. The initial set of variables contains data on the isobaric surface geopotential at 500 hPa, surface pressure, temperature at 850 hPa at the regular grid points at 2.5° × 2.5° resolution and their derivatives. For formulation of forecasting equations, the algorithm of model self-organization is used with external criteria. The input of initial information, forecast issuance, displaying results and their delivery to customers based on GIS-technologies are totally automated.     

不同分辨率CCSM4对东亚和中国气候模拟能力分析

本文利用通用气候系统模式CCSM4在三种水平分辨率下的工业化革命前期气候模拟试验,结合观测和再分析资料,比较了各分辨率下模式对中国温度和降水、东亚海平面气压和850 hPa风场的模拟能力,综合评价了模式分辨率对东亚和中国气候模拟的影响.结果表明,三种分辨率对中国温度均具有很好的模拟能力,除春季外,低分辨率(T31,约3.75°×3.75°)对全年温度的模拟能力均要稍好于中(f19,约1.9°×2.5°)、高(f09,约0.9°×1.25°)分辨率;各分辨率对中国降水的模拟能力远不如温度,除冬季外全年都出现的中部地区虚假降水并未因为模式分辨率提高而得到本质改善;对于东亚海平面气压场,低分辨率在冬季模拟能力相对最好,中等分辨率在夏季相对较好,而高分辨率的模拟能力均表现最差;低分辨率对850 hPa东亚冬季风和夏季风的模拟能力均要好于中、高分辨率,而两种较高分辨率的模拟能力则比较接近.总的来说,低分辨率CCSM4在东亚和中国气候模拟中表现出了较大优势,加之其计算代价小,适合进行需要较长时间积分的气候模拟研究.     

Five hundred years of gridded high-resolution precipitation reconstructions over Europe and the connection to large-scale circulation

We present seasonal precipitation reconstructions for European land areas (30°W to 40°E/30–71°N; given on a 0.5°×0.5° resolved grid) covering the period 1500–1900 together with gridded reanalysis from 1901 to 2000 (Mitchell and Jones 2005). Principal component regression techniques were applied to develop this dataset. A large variety of long instrumental precipitation series, precipitation indices based on documentary evidence and natural proxies (tree-ring chronologies, ice cores, corals and a speleothem) that are sensitive to precipitation signals were used as predictors. Transfer functions were derived over the 1901–1983 calibration period and applied to 1500–1900 in order to reconstruct the large-scale precipitation fields over Europe. The performance (quality estimation based on unresolved variance within the calibration period) of the reconstructions varies over centuries, seasons and space. Highest reconstructive skill was found for winter over central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. Precipitation variability over the last half millennium reveals both large interannual and decadal fluctuations. Applying running correlations, we found major non-stationarities in the relation between large-scale circulation and regional precipitation. For several periods during the last 500 years, we identified key atmospheric modes for southern Spain/northern Morocco and central Europe as representations of two precipitation regimes. Using scaled composite analysis, we show that precipitation extremes over central Europe and southern Spain are linked to distinct pressure patterns. Due to its high spatial and temporal resolution, this dataset allows detailed studies of regional precipitation variability for all seasons, impact studies on different time and space scales, comparisons with high-resolution climate models as well as analysis of connections with regional temperature reconstructions. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at and is accessible for authorized users.     

The Atmospheric Water Resource over the Qilian-Heihe Valley

On the base of weather station data and the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data, atmospheric water resource over the Qilian-Heihe Valley was analyzed, and the result shows that, the less water vapor transport source and the divergence of atmospheric stream eld are main cause for resulting in the little water vapor content over the Qilian-Heihe Valley. Annual mean atmospheric water vapor content over the Qilian-Heihe Valley is merely 30% and 40% over the south of the Yangtze River and the middle of North China, respectively. Because of its high elevation and high precipitation e ciency, the Qilian Mountains area has plentiful precipitation. And the lower surface temperature and evaporation make the surface water material gather easily and thus form runo . As for the Heihe Valley, for the low precipitation efficiency, there is little precipitation and its value is corresponded to the surface evaporation. Thus its contribution to the surface water is very small. In the grid of 2.5°×2.5° over the Qilian-Heihe Valley, annual influent and effluent water vapor amount are 668×109 and 650×109 m3, respectively. The net influent water vapor amount is 18×109 m3. The influent water vapor takes on reducing tendency and with an obvious descent in period of the 1970s-1980s. In the recent 40 years, because the air temperature over the Qilian-Heihe Valley is rising and the atmospheric water vapor content is descending, the decrease of precipitation would be inevitable.     

GRAPES三维云初始场形成及在短临预报中的应用

围绕GRAPES_Meso的云初始场形成,以ARPS模式云分析方案为基础,优化诊断后应用我国风云二号静止气象卫星云产品、多普勒天气雷达三维组网拼图产品等观测资料结合模式背景信息,根据云热力-动力学原理及观测试验经验关系等,对云初始场的信息进行分析并通过松弛逼近同化方法实现对云内微物理信息同化应用。GRAPES_Meso中采用优化后的云初始场方案,水平分辨率为0.03°×0.03°和0.1°×0.1°的1个月（2014年7月15日-8月14日）连续试验和个例分析结果显示:云初始场形成方案能够分析出飑线等天气系统的云系和云内微物理变量特征。从模拟云图看,包含云初始场信息的GRAPES_Meso的云系的形态特征和分布范围短时临近预报结果更为准确。云初始场信息同化应用后,在1 h的时间尺度上,即可预报出与实况更为接近的降水;0~12 h时间范围内对降水均有积极的影响,可满足短时临近预报的需求,降水量级略偏大。批量连续试验（水平分辨率为0.03°×0.03°和0.1°×0.1°）的各个量级降水ETS（equitable threat score）评分都显著提高。     

Evaluation of a WRF dynamical downscaling simulation over California

This paper presents results from a 40 year Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) based dynamical downscaling experiment performed at 12 km horizontal grid spacing, centered on the state of California, and forced by a 1° × 1.25° finite-volume current-climate Community Climate System Model ver. 3 (CCSM3) simulation. In-depth comparisons between modeled and observed regional-average precipitation, 2 m temperature, and snowpack are performed. The regional model reproduces the spatial distribution of precipitation quite well, but substantially overestimates rainfall along windward slopes. This is due to strong overprediction of precipitation intensity; precipitation frequency is actually underpredicted by the model. Moisture fluxes impinging on the coast seem to be well-represented over California, implying that precipitation bias is caused by processes internal to WRF. Positive-definite moisture advection and use of the Grell cumulus parameterization result in some decrease in precipitation bias, but other sources are needed to explain the full bias magnitude. Surface temperature is well simulated in all seasons except summer, when overly-dry soil moisture results in a several degree warm bias in both CCSM3 and WRF. Additionally, coastal temperatures appear to be too warm due to a coastal sea surface temperature bias inherited from CCSM3. Modeled snowfall/snowmelt agrees quite well with observations, but snow water equivalent is found to be much too low due to monthly reinitialization of all regional model fields from CCSM3 values.     

中国土壤湿度的分布与变化 II. 耦合模式模拟结果评估

利用中国区域土壤湿度观测资料,对目前世界上较具有代表性的14个全球海-陆-气耦合模式模拟的中国区域土壤湿度进行了评估,发现尽管几乎所有的耦合模式基本都能够再现实际的土壤湿度空间分布,但模拟的土壤湿度季节循环和年际变化,却与观测相差较大。除了少数模式中降水变化与土壤湿度变化的关系不明显外,大部分模式都揭示了前期降水对后期土壤湿度变化的显著影响,在部分模式中,前期降水对土壤湿度的影响偏强。耦合模式在土壤湿度模拟上的偏差,主要来自降水模拟上的偏差。在土壤湿度的年平均和夏季平均空间分布、年际变化方面,高分辨率模式（水平格距高于1.875°×1.875°）的结果,整体上要好于中（水平格距在1.875°×1.875°与3.75°×3.75°之间）、低(水平格距小于3.75°×3.75°)分辨率的模式;而中等分辨率模式结果相对于低分辨率而言则优势不明显。     

北半球环状模和东北冷涡与我国东北夏季降水关系分析

利用国家气象信息中心提供的1951～2004年全国160个测站月平均降水资料和欧洲中心提供的ERA-40再分析资料,对近50多年东北地区夏季降水、东北冷涡与前期北半球环状模和海温的关系进行了统计分析,定义了一个夏季(6～8月)东北冷涡强度指数(NECVI)。结果表明:NECVI能够较好表征东北低涡的气候效应;夏季东北冷涡强度与降水存在显著的正相关,东北冷涡强年,降水偏多,前期2月北半球环状模(NAM)偏弱;东北冷涡偏弱年,降水偏少,前期2月NAM偏强。此外,夏季东北冷涡与前期的中国近海海温存在显著的负相关,前期NAM和中国近海海温的异常可以作为夏季东北冷涡异常的一个前兆信号,进而为东北地区夏季降水异常的预测提供参考依据。     

2012年夏季四川东部一次大暴雨过程分析

本文使用常规观测资料、四川省自动站降水资料、0.1°×0.1°的FY－2E云顶亮温资料和1°×1°的NCEP再分析格点资料对2012年7月20～23日四川东部强降水过程的主要影响系统、水汽源地、动力、热力条件等进行诊断分析,结果表明:(1)本次暴雨过程中伴有500hPa高空槽东移至四川并向南加深发展,槽后冷空气与槽前暖湿气流在四川汇合,低层有低涡发展,配以高低空急流耦合的有利形势;(2)暴雨前期水汽主要来源于孟加拉湾,随着南海台风西进,其外围偏东气流向西输送增强,西南暖湿气流北上受到抑制,使得雨带南压;(3)降水以对流性降水为主,暴雨期间水汽凝结潜热在对流层中低层起主要作用,强上升运动将低层的潜热加热向上输送,形成高空的热源中心,强降水期间大气的加热是与大气的垂直上升运动密切相关的;在本次暴雨过程垂直输送项是视热源Q1和视水汽汇Q2的主要贡献者,尤其是在强降水阶段;(4)在低涡在发展阶段,低层正涡度局地变化项首先得到发展,在低涡减弱阶段,正涡度局地变化项的峰值中心由低层向中低层抬升;(5)中尺度对流系统与小时降水分布一致,MCS的发展是触发降水的重要因素之一。      

Evaluation of summer temperature and precipitation forecasts generated by the MM5 model over central European Russia

The results of the MM5 regional meteorological model are compared with the station data. The simulations are carried out for the central part of the East European Plain for summer with a horizontal grid resolution of 15 km (24 × 34 grid points) and 24 vertical σ-levels, the upper level corresponding to 100 hPa. The MM5 model reliably reproduces information at a spatial scale of about 100 km, systematically overestimating temperature by about 1.5°C and underestimating daily precipitation totals by about 1 mm. The distribution functions for model and observed temperatures coincide with the Gaussian distribution function. The precipitation distribution functions are rather similar and have a form of the χ²-distribution with one degree of freedom. Station and model temperature extremes generally coincide in time. Extremes of daily precipitation totals are slightly underestimated by MM5.     

A Modeling Study of Climatic Change and Its Implication for Agriculture in C

The trends and features of China’s climatic change in the past and future are analysed by applying station obser-vations and GCM simulation results. Nationally, the country has warmed by 0.3oC in annual mean air temperature and decreased by 5% in annual precipitation over 1951-1990. Regionally, temperature change has varied from a cooling of 0.3oC in Southwest China to a warming of 1.0oC in Northeast China. With the exception of South China, all regions of China have shown a declination in precipitation. Climatic change has the features of increasing remark-ably in winter temperature and decreasing obviously in summer precipitation. Under doubled CO2 concentration, climatic change in China will tend to be warmer and moister, with increases of 4.5oC in annual mean air temperature and 11% in annual precipitation on the national scale. Future climatic change will reduce the temporal and spatial differences of climatic factors.     

Annual and seasonal climate and climatic changes in the Canadian prairies simulated by the CCC GCM

Abstract

As part of a study on the effects of climatic variability and change on the sustainability of agriculture in Alberto, the modelling performance of the second‐generation Canadian Climate Centre GCM (general circulation model) is examined. For the region in general, the simulation of 1 × CO₂ mean temperature is generally better than that for mean precipitation, and summer is the season best modelled for each variable. At the scale of individual grid squares, DJF (December, January, February) (temperature) and JJA (June, July, August) (precipitation) are the seasons best modelled. The GCM‐simulated increases in mean annual temperature resulting from a doubling of CO₂ are of the order of 5 to 6°C in the Prairie region, with much of this increase resulting from substantial warming in the winter and spring. Increases in mean annual precipitation are of the order of 50 to 150 mm (changes of +5 to +15%), with the greatest changes again occurring in winter and spring. As far as the limited GCM run durations allow, temperature and precipitation variance generally show no significant changes from a 1 × CO₂ to a 2 × CO₂ climate. Increased precipitation in winter and spring does not result in greater snow accumulations owing to the magnitude of warming; and significant decreases in soil moisture content occur in summer and fall. The resulting effects on the growing season and moisture regime have the potential to affect agricultural practices in the area.     

区域气候模式对我国中、东部夏季气候的数值模拟

利用高分辨率的区域气候模式RegCM3(ICTP,2004年)对1994、1997、1998年我国夏季(6～8月)气候进行了数值模拟试验,并对比分析了不同积云对流方案对降水场模拟结果的影响。结果表明:该模式能够较真实地描述出我国夏季温度场的主要高、低温中心及月际变化,但模拟的气温场偏低;选择不同的积云对流方案对降水的模拟结果影响很大,采用Grell积云对流方案模拟出的我国夏季降水场最接近观测场,较好地模拟出我国东部地区夏季主要雨带的大致位置及变化,但雨带的位置偏南、中心降水量值偏大;500 hPa位势高度场的模拟结果和实际观测场较为一致,但西风带的位置偏南,相应地副热带高压588位势什米线位置较观测场向东南偏移。     

The sensitivity of African easterly waves to eastern tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperatures

The results of two regional atmospheric model simulations are compared to assess the influence of the eastern tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperature maximum on local precipitation, transient easterly waves and the West African summer monsoon. Both model simulations were initialized with reanalysis 2 data (US National Center for Environmental Prediction and Department of Energy) on 15 May 2006 and extended through 6 October 2006, forced by synchronous reanalysis 2 lateral boundary conditions introduced four times daily. One simulation uses 2006 reanalysis 2 sea-surface temperatures, also updated four times daily, while the second simulation considers ocean forcing absent the sea-surface temperature maximum, achieved here by subtracting 3°K at every ocean grid point between 0° and 15°N during the entire simulation. The simulation with 2006 sea-surface temperature forcing produces a realistic distribution of June?CSeptember mean precipitation and realistic westward propagating swaths of maximum rainfall, based on validation against Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) estimates. The simulation without the sea-surface temperature maximum produces only 57% of the control June?CSeptember total precipitation over the eastern tropical Atlantic and about 83% of the Sahel precipitation. The simulation with warmer ocean temperatures generates generally stronger circulation, which in turn enhances precipitation by increasing moisture convergence. Some local precipitation enhancement is also attributed to lower vertical thermal stability above the warm water. The study shows that the eastern tropical Atlantic sea-surface temperature maximum enhances the strength of transient easterly waves and broadens the spatial extent of associated precipitation. However, large-scale circulation and its interaction with the African continent, and not sea-surface temperatures, control the timing and trajectories of the waves.     

A scenario of European climate change for the late twenty-first century: seasonal means and interannual variability

A scenario of European climate change for the late twenty-first century is described, using a high-resolution state-of-the-art model. A time-slice approach is used, whereby the atmospheric general circulation model, HadAM3P, was integrated for two periods, 1960–1990 and 2070–2100, using the SRES A2 scenario. For the first time an ensemble of such experiments was produced, along with appropriate statistical tests for assessing significance. The focus is on changes to the statistics of seasonal means, and includes analysis of both multi-year means and interannual variance. All four seasons are assessed, and anomalies are mapped for surface air temperature, precipitation and snow mass. Mechanisms are proposed where these are dominated by straightforward local processes. In winter, the largest warming occurs over eastern Europe, up to 7°C, mean snow mass is reduced by at least 80% except over Scandinavia, and precipitation increases over all but the southernmost parts of Europe. In summer, temperatures rise by 6–9°C south of about 50°N, and mean rainfall is substantially reduced over the same area. In spring and autumn, anomalies tend to be weaker, but often display patterns similar to the preceding season, reflecting the inertia of the land surface component of the climate system. Changes in interannual variance are substantial in the solsticial seasons for many regions (note that for precipitation, variance estimates are scaled by the square of the mean). In winter, interannual variability of near-surface air temperature is considerably reduced over much of Europe, and the relative variability of precipitation is reduced north of about 50°N. In summer, the (relative) interannual variance of both variables increases over much of the continent.     

Climate simulations based on a different-grid nested and coupled model

An atmosphere-vegetation interaction model (AVIM) has been coupled with a nine-layer General Circulation Model (GCM) of Institute of Atmospheic Physics / State Key Laboratory of Numerical Modeling for Atmospheric Sciences and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics (IAP/LASG), which is rhomboidally truncated at zonal wave number 15, to simulate global climatic mean states. AVIM is a model having inter-feedback between land surface processes and eco-physiological processes on land. As the first step to couple land with atmosphere completely, the physiological processes are fixed and only the physical part (generally named the SVAT (soil-vegetation-atmosphere-transfer scheme) model) of AVIM is nested into IAP/LASG L9R15 GCM. The ocean part of GCM is prescribed and its monthly sea surface temperature (SST) is the climatic mean value. With respect to the low resolution of GCM, i.e., each grid cell having longitude 7.5° and latitude 4.5°, the vegetation is given a high resolution of 1.5° by 1.5° to nest and couple the fine grid cells of land with the coarse grid cells of atmosphere. The coupling model has been integrated for 15years and its last ten-year mean of outputs was chosen for analysis.Compared with observed data and NCEP reanalysis, the coupled model simulates the main characteristics of global atmospheric circulation and the fields of temperature and moisture. In particular, the simulated precipitation and surface air temperature have sound results. The work creates a solid base on coupling climate models with the biosphere.     

对流层低层偏东风对北京局地暴雨的作用

本文利用风廓线仪、地面自动站观测资料及NCAR/NCEP 1°×1°分析资料等,对北京地区两次局地暴雨天气过程的对流层低层偏东风进行了对比分析研究,重点分析了浅薄和深厚两次偏东风的形成机制、偏东风的垂直结构特征和温、湿特性,以及偏东风在北京局地暴雨中的作用等。主要结论如下:(1)浅薄偏东风活动在距地面高度500 m 以下,水平尺度约250 km,时间尺度约12 h, 地面风速平均约1 m/s;深厚偏东风活动在距地面高度3000 m 以下,水平尺度大于600 km,持续时间大于24 h,地面风速平均约4 m/s。(2)浅薄偏东风由边界层内浅薄的次天气尺度暖性低涡引起,深厚偏东风由天气尺度地面暖性低压倒槽的发展引起。(3)偏东风具有高相当位温的属性,其源地是北京东部或东南部的暖湿气团;在暖湿偏东风上方800～600 hPa 存在干冷空气活动,形成了有利的对流不稳定层结;浅薄偏东风暖湿能量的局地集中特征更为显著,而深厚偏东风在水汽和能量的持续输送方面,以及与500 hPa 偏西风形成较强的、有利于强对流风暴发展的低层垂直风切变方面作用更为显著。(4)浅薄偏东风在时间和空间上与近地面层辐合中心对应较好,与中高空辐散有较好配合,动力作用明显,直接起到了对流风暴的触发机制作用;深厚偏东风与辐合中心对应较差,与垂直运动及上层辐散也没有很好的配合,与对流风暴的触发没有直接的关系。但是深厚偏东风在对流层低层对应厚达3000 m 的潮湿空气层,削弱了雨滴下落过程中产生的蒸发降温作用,有利于对流的发展和维持。     

Evaluation of an ensemble of regional climate model simulations over South America driven by the ERA-Interim reanalysis: model performance and uncertainties

The capability of a set of 7 coordinated regional climate model simulations performed in the framework of the CLARIS-LPB Project in reproducing the mean climate conditions over the South American continent has been evaluated. The model simulations were forced by the ERA-Interim reanalysis dataset for the period 1990–2008 on a grid resolution of 50 km, following the CORDEX protocol. The analysis was focused on evaluating the reliability of simulating mean precipitation and surface air temperature, which are the variables most commonly used for impact studies. Both the common features and the differences among individual models have been evaluated and compared against several observational datasets. In this study the ensemble bias and the degree of agreement among individual models have been quantified. The evaluation was focused on the seasonal means, the area-averaged annual cycles and the frequency distributions of monthly means over target sub-regions. Results show that the Regional Climate Model ensemble reproduces adequately well these features, with biases mostly within ±2 °C and ±20 % for temperature and precipitation, respectively. However, the multi-model ensemble depicts larger biases and larger uncertainty (as defined by the standard deviation of the models) over tropical regions compared with subtropical regions. Though some systematic biases were detected particularly over the La Plata Basin region, such as underestimation of rainfall during winter months and overestimation of temperature during summer months, every model shares a similar behavior and, consequently, the uncertainty in simulating current climate conditions is low. Every model is able to capture the variety in the shape of the frequency distribution for both temperature and precipitation along the South American continent. Differences among individual models and observations revealed the nature of individual model biases, showing either a shift in the distribution or an overestimation or underestimation of the range of variability.     

On the ability of the regional climate model RIEMS to simulate the present climate over Asia

A continuous 10-year simulation in Asia for the period of 1 July 1988 to 31 December 1998 was conducted using the Regional Integrated Environmental Model System (RIEMS) with NCEP Reanalysis II data as the driving fields. The model processes include surface physics state package (BATS 1e), a Holtslag explicit planetary boundary layer formulation, a Grell cumulus parameterization, and a modified radiation package (CCM3). Model-produced surface temperature and precipitation are compared with observations from 1001 meteorology stations distributed over Asia and with the 0.5 × 0.5 CRU gridded dataset. The analysis results show that: (1) RIEMS reproduces well the spatial pattern and the seasonal cycle of surface temperature and precipitation; (2) When regionally averaged, the seasonal mean temperature biases are within 1–2C. For precipitation, the model tends to give better simulation in winter than in summer, and seasonal precipitation biases are mostly in the range of ?12%–50%; (3) Spatial correlation coefficients between observed and simulated seasonal precipitation are higher in north of the Yangtze River than in the south and higher in winter than in summer; (4) RIEMS can well reproduce the spatial pattern of seasonal mean sea level pressure. In winter, the model-simulated Siberian high is stronger than the observed. In summer, the simulated subtropical high is shifted northwestwards; (5) The temporal evolution of the East Asia summer monsoon rain belt, with steady phases separated by more rapid transitions, is reproduced.     

北半球环状模(NAM)、东北冷涡与前汛期华南旱涝

利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的1951-2004年全国160站月平均降水资料和欧洲中心提供的ERA-40再分析资料，对近50年华南前汛期降水、东北冷涡、前期北半球环状模和海温的关系进行了统计分析，定义了一个前汛期东北冷涡强度指数（NECVI），结果表明：前汛期东北冷涡强度与华南降水存在显著的正相关，东北冷涡强年，华南降水偏多，前期2-3月份北半球环状模（NAM）偏弱；反之，东北冷涡偏弱年，华南降水偏少，前期2-3月份NAM偏强。此外，前汛期东北冷涡的强度和前期的中国近海海温存在显著的负相关，前期的NAM和中国近海海温的异常可以作为前汛期东北冷涡异常的一个前兆信号，进而为华南地区前汛期降水异常的预测提供参考依据。