A comparative study of bridge damage due to the Wenchuan, Northridge, Loma Prieta and San Fernando earthquakes

A comparative study of selected bridge damage due to the Wenchuan, Northridge, Loma Prieta and San Fernando earthquakes is described in this paper. Typical ground motion effects considered include large ground fault displacement, liquefaction, landslide, and strong ground shaking. Issues related to falling spans, inadequate detailing for structural ductility and complex bridge configurations are discussed within the context of the recent seismic design codes of China and the US. A significant lesson learned from the Great Wenchuan earthquake, far beyond the opportunities to improve the seismic design provisions for bridges, is articulated.     

Observations and studies of electromagnetic waves during the approaching of earthquakes

This article introduces the practical observation results of pre-earthquake electromagnetic radiations at the network of monitoring stations in Jiangsu region in resent years and discusses the electromagnetic wave precursors during the approaching period of earthquakes based on the observations of the electromagetic radiation signals before theM _s 6.0 Liyang earthquake of 1979 in Jiangsu province, theM _s 5.9 Heze earthquake of 1983 in Shandong province and theM _s 6.2 South Yellow Sea earthquake of 1984.     

A model of the generation of electromagnetic emissions detected prior to earthquakes

Recent satellite and ground-based observations prove that during the formative period of earthquakes VLF/LF and ULF electromagnetic emissions are observed in seismogenic areas. This work offers an original model of self-generated electromagnetic oscillations of local segments of the lithospheric origins of the emissions. In the paper, the seismogenic area is considered to be an oscillatory-distributed system. This model simplifies physical analyses of the nonlinear effects and qualitatively explains the mechanisms that generate very low frequency electromagnetic waves in the period prior to an earthquake.     

Geothermal model of Earth's crust and lithosphere for the territory of Yugoslavia: Some tectonic implications

Summary Deep sounding seismic data along nine profiles and measured values of the terrestrial heat flow were used to construct a geothermal model of the crust for the territory of Yugoslavia. The obtained data indicate that the lowest temperatures (250 – 350°C) at the crust base are in the region of the Outer Dinarides and the highest (900 – 1000°C) in the region of the Pannonian Basin and the Serbian-Macedonian Massif. The difference is associated with the changing heat flow which reaches the Earth's crust from the upper mantle. Based on the crustal temperature distribution, an approximate lithospheric thickness was estimated for the first time for the entire territory of Yugoslavia. It is largest under the Outer Dinarides, where it is up to 260 kilometres, and smallest under the Pannonian Basin and the Serbian-Macedonian Massif, only 40 – 50 kilometres.Before the separation of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia.Presented at the International Meeting on Terrestrial Heat Flow and the Structure of Lithosphere, Bechyn Castle, Czech Republic, September 2 – 7, 1991.     

Induction in the Earth's crust: Observational methods on land and sea

During the last twenty years, the measurement of the Earth's electromagnetic field has been greatly improved. Old devices, such as suspended magnet variometers or the inductive sensors, are now up to date, thanks to the use of negative feedback techniques. Very sensitive instruments, like the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) are now available for geophysical applications. The extensive use of large arrays of magnetometers has permitted the study of the distribution of telluric flow inside the Earth's crust and the delineation of large, deep conductivity anomalies. We also have a better knowledge of the distribution of the resistivity at depth, even under the ocean bottom. But we are still very far from understanding how the telluric currents are induced in the Earth, especially at very low frequencies.

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Résumé Depuis vingt ans la mesure du champ électromagnétique naturel s'est beaucoup améliorée. D'anciens instruments comme les variomètres à aimant suspendu ou les capteurs inductifs ont été remis en honneur grâce à l'utilisation de techniques nouvelles, comme la contre-réaction de champ. D'autres appareils, extrêmement sensibles, tels que les SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device) sont maintenant disponibles pour des applications géophysiques. L'usage intensif de réseaux de magnétomètres a permis d'étudier la distribution des courants telluriques en profondeur et de mettre en évidence d'importantes anomalies de conductivité. Nous avons aussi une meilleure connaissance de la répartition de la résistivité à grande profondeur y compris sous les océans. Mais nous restons très ignorants des mécanismes qui régissent l'induction des courants telluriques à l'échelle de la terre entière, particulièrement aux très basses fréquences.

     

On the fluid nature of intermediate conductive layers in the Earth's crust: Evidence from electromagnetic sounding and superdeep well logging

The question whether it is possible to associate the nature of intermediate conducting layers, revealed in the upper crust in the Baltic Shield and other ancient crystalline structures, with the presence of fluids of a surface origin is considered. With this aim in view, the results of frequency electromagnetic sounding with controlled sources have been analyzed, and the geodynamical interpretation of the nature of an intermediate conducting layer was carried out in the context of the dilatant-diffusion theory of the Earth’s crust fracturing, where the superdeep well logging data have been taken into account.     

Water and graphite in the Earth's crust —An approach to interpretation of conductivity models

In the present discussion on the origin of highly conducting layers in the middle and lower crust, water (brines) and graphite are widely accepted as the two most promising explanations. In this review, petrophysical and petrological aspects are summarized aiming at an understanding of how the indispensable interconnectedness of these highly conducting phases within a normally insulating rock matrix may be established and maintained under conditions of the upper and the lower crust. Accordingly, interpretation of conductivity models will be conclusive in cases of conductance values reaching several thousand S for layers at deeper crustal level since they can not be explained other than by the existence of metaanthracitic or graphitic rocks. In cases of low to moderate conductance values as often observed, e.g., at the transition zone from the upper to the lower crust, interpretation may remain ambiguous and may need further multidisciplinary investigations.     

Usingalarge3Dcelautomationmodeltosimulateenergyfrequency,spaceandtimedistributionofearthquakes

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Modification of the SWAT model to simulate regional groundwater flow using a multicell aquifer

The soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) has been widely used and thoroughly tested in many places in the world. The application of the SWAT model has pointed out that 2 of the major weaknesses of SWAT are related to the nonspatial reference of the hydrologic response unit concept and to the simplified groundwater concept, which contribute to its low performance in baseflow simulation and its inability to simulate regional groundwater flow. This study modified the groundwater module of SWAT to overcome the above limitations. The modified groundwater module has 2 aquifers. The local aquifer, which is the shallow aquifer in the original SWAT, represents a local groundwater flow system. The regional aquifer, which replaces the deep aquifer of the original SWAT, represents intermediate and regional groundwater flow systems. Groundwater recharge is partitioned into local and regional aquifer recharges. The regional aquifer is represented by a multicell aquifer (MCA) model. The regional aquifer is discretized into cells using the Thiessen polygon method, where centres of the cells are locations of groundwater observation wells. Groundwater flow between cells is modelled using Darcy's law. Return flow from cell to stream is conceptualized using a non‐linear storage–discharge relationship. The SWAT model with the modified aquifer module, the so‐called SWAT‐MCA, was tested in 2 basins (Wipperau and Neetze) with porous aquifers in a lowland area in Lower Saxony, Germany. Results from the Wipperau basin show that the SWAT‐MCA model is able (a) to simulate baseflow in a lowland area (where baseflow is a dominant source of streamflow) better than the original model and (b) to simulate regional groundwater flow, shown by the simulated groundwater levels in cells, quite well.     

Global-scale validation of model-based load deformation of the Earth's crust from continental watermass and atmospheric pressure variations using GPS

Temporal mass variations in the continental hydrosphere and in the atmosphere lead to changes in the gravitational potential field that are associated with load-induced deformation of the Earth’s crust. Therefore, models that compute continental water storage and atmospheric pressure can be validated by measured load deformation time series. In this study, water mass variations as computed by the WaterGAP Global Hydrology Model (WGHM) and surface pressure as provided by the reanalysis product of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction describe the hydrological and atmospheric pressure loading, respectively. GPS observations from 14 years at 208 stations world-wide were reprocessed to estimate admittance factors for the associated load deformation time series in order to determine how well the model-based deformation fits to real data. We found that such site-specific scaling factors can be identified separately for water mass and air pressure loading. Regarding water storage variation as computed by WGHM, weighted global mean admittances are 0.74 ± 0.09, 0.66 ± 0.10, 0.90 ± 0.06 for the north, east and vertical component, respectively. For the dominant vertical component, there is a rather good fit to the observed displacements, and, averaged over all sites, WGHM is found to slightly overestimate temporal variations of water storage. For Europe and North America, with a dense GPS network, site-specific admittances show a good spatial coherence. Regarding regional over- or underestimation of WGHM water storage variations, they agree well with GRACE gravity field data. Globally averaged admittance estimates of pre-computed atmospheric loading displacements provided by the Goddard Geodetic VLBI Group were determined to be 0.88 ± 0.04, 0.97 ± 0.08, 1.13 ± 0.01 for the north, east and vertical, respectively. Here, a relatively large discrepancy for the dominant vertical component indicates an underestimation of corresponding loading predictions.     

西-海-固地区垂直形变分析及地震趋势研究

通过对西（吉）-海（原）-固（原）地区垂直形变场的演化分析表明:①90年代以来,垂直形变场升降差异运动减弱;②现今青藏亚板块对鄂尔多斯地块西南缘（西-海-固地区） 的 NE 方向挤压应力有所减弱,华北亚板块 SW 方向挤压应力有所加强;③鄂尔多斯块体周缘小震出现的活跃状态,可能是由于青藏亚板块挤压应力的减弱而造成鄂尔多斯块体水平挤压应力场的“失稳”,以及华北亚板块挤压应力相对增强的结果。     

Nonlinear wave propagation on a sphere: Interaction between Rossby waves and gravity waves; stability of the Rossby waves

Abstract

An analytical spectral model of the barotropic divergent equations on a sphere is developed using the potential-stream function formulation and the normal modes as basic functions. Explicit expressions of the coefficients of nonlinear interaction are obtained in the asymptotic case of a slowly rotating sphere, i.e. when the normal modes can be expressed as single spherical harmonics.     

The study of the radiation characteristics and propagation of seismic waves in the North Caucasus by modeling the accelerograms of the recorded earthquakes

For evaluating the parameters of the vibrations of the Earth’s surface in the case of strong earthquakes, which are possible in the future, the regular patterns of the emission and propagation of seismic waves in the North Caucasus regions are investigated. The regional parameters of emission and propagation of seismic waves are evaluated by solution of the inverse problems of stochastic modeling of the accelerograms of the earthquakes, recorded by the seismic station in Sochi. The horizontal components of the strongest earthquakes (M _w ～ 3.9?5.6), that occurred in 2002–2006 within a radius of ～300 km from the seismic station, with source depths up to 60 km are modeled. For calculations of accelerograms, estimates of the quality are used, obtained earlier for this region in the form: Q(f) ～ 80 ～ f ^0.9. The parameter settings are carried out, which determine the shapes of the source spectra, the amplification of the seismic waves in the Earth’s crust, the weakening of the waves at high frequencies (κ), the parameters that determine the shape and duration of accelerograms, etc. Sufficiently good agreement of the calculated and recorded accelerograms is obtained, the regional characteristics of emission and propagation of seismic waves, which can be used for prediction of the parameters of strong motions in the North Caucasus, are evaluated; however, in the future these characteristics should be studied in more detail.     

The state of stress in the Earth's crust as based on measurements in mines and on geophysical data

Measurements of stress carried out in mines suggest that much of the Earth's crust is in a state of horizontal compression. The average of the two principal horizontal stresses usually exceeds the hydrostatic (geostatic) pressure and fits N. Hast's empirical relationship of increasing excess compressive stress with depth. High compressive stresses are usually aligned perpendicular to the trends of young, folded mountain ranges and to axes of positive and negative gravity anomalies.     

青藏高原东北缘深地震测深震相研究与地壳细结构

通过对青藏高原东北缘不同构造单元深地震测深资料震相的综合分析,利用反射率理论地震图方法对实际记录模拟计算,进一步研究东北缘区域内部不同构造单元地壳细结构.结果显示：西秦岭褶皱造山带分隔了南北不同性质的地壳结构,北侧为相对稳定的临夏—兰州新生代盆地、南侧为强烈改造的松潘—甘孜地块;松潘—甘孜地块在青藏高原东北缘的构造演化过程中改造为萎缩的若尔盖高原盆地和盆地边缘褶皱造山两类不同的地壳结构;青藏高原东北缘中下地壳普遍存在以多层高低速相间、低速度结构为主的破碎松弛结构,这种特征在缝合带和造山带尤为明显,显示为地壳形变增厚、流变滑动的重要场所;结合二维速度结构及GPS研究结果,对青藏高原东北缘地壳形变及动力学过程进行了讨论.     

Simulation of breaking waves using the high-order spectral method with laboratory experiments: wave-breaking energy dissipation

We examine the implementation of a wave-breaking mechanism into a nonlinear potential flow solver. The success of the mechanism will be studied by implementing it into the numerical model HOS-NWT, which is a computationally efficient, open source code that solves for the free surface in a numerical wave tank using the high-order spectral (HOS) method. Once the breaking mechanism is validated, it can be implemented into other nonlinear potential flow models. To solve for wave-breaking, first a wave-breaking onset parameter is identified, and then a method for computing wave-breaking associated energy loss is determined. Wave-breaking onset is calculated using a breaking criteria introduced by Barthelemy et al. (J Fluid Mech https://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.06002.pdf, submitted) and validated with the experiments of Saket et al. (J Fluid Mech 811:642–658, 2017). Wave-breaking energy dissipation is calculated by adding a viscous diffusion term computed using an eddy viscosity parameter introduced by Tian et al. (Phys Fluids 20(6): 066,604, 2008, Phys Fluids 24(3), 2012), which is estimated based on the pre-breaking wave geometry. A set of two-dimensional experiments is conducted to validate the implemented wave breaking mechanism at a large scale. Breaking waves are generated by using traditional methods of evolution of focused waves and modulational instability, as well as irregular breaking waves with a range of primary frequencies, providing a wide range of breaking conditions to validate the solver. Furthermore, adjustments are made to the method of application and coefficient of the viscous diffusion term with negligible difference, supporting the robustness of the eddy viscosity parameter. The model is able to accurately predict surface elevation and corresponding frequency/amplitude spectrum, as well as energy dissipation when compared with the experimental measurements. This suggests the model is capable of calculating wave-breaking onset and energy dissipation successfully for a wide range of breaking conditions. The model is also able to successfully calculate the transfer of energy between frequencies due to wave focusing and wave breaking. This study is limited to unidirectional waves but provides a valuable basis for future application of the wave-breaking model to a multidirectional wave field. By including parameters for removing energy due to wave-breaking into a nonlinear potential flow solver, the risk of developing numerical instabilities due to an overturning wave is decreased, thereby increasing the application range of the model, including calculating more extreme sea states. A computationally efficient and accurate model for the generation of a nonlinear random wave field is useful for predicting the dynamic response of offshore vessels and marine renewable energy devices, predicting loads on marine structures, and in the study of open ocean wave generation and propagation in a realistic environment.     

Characteristics of radiation and propagation of seismic waves in the Baikal Rift Zone estimated by simulations of acceleration time histories of the recorded earthquakes

The regularities in the radiation and propagation of seismic waves within the Baikal Rift Zone in Buryatia are studied to estimate the ground motion parameters from the probable future strong earthquakes. The regional parameters of seismic radiation and propagation are estimated by the stochastic simulation (which provides the closest agreement between the calculations and observations) of the acceleration time histories of the earthquakes recorded by the Ulan-Ude seismic station. The acceleration time histories of the strongest earthquakes (M _W ~ 3.4–4.8) that occurred in 2006–2011 at the epicentral distances of ~96–125 km and had source depths of ~8–12 km have been modeled. The calculations are conducted with estimates of the Q-factor which were previously obtained for the region. The frequency-dependent attenuation and geometrical spreading are estimated from the data on the deep structure of the crust and upper mantle (velocity sections) in the Ulan-Ude region, and the parameters determining the wave forms and duration of acceleration time histories are found by fitting. These parameters fairly well describe all the considered earthquakes. The Ulan-Ude station can be considered as the reference bedrock station with minimum local effects. The obtained estimates for the parameters of seismic radiation and propagation can be used for forecasting the ground motion from the future strong earthquakes and for constructing the seismic zoning maps for Buryatia.     

有限元方法研究精细地-电离层波导VLF波传播特性

基于频域有限元方法仿真了精细地-电离层波导结构甚低频(VLF, Very Low Frequency)电磁波幅度和相位传播特性.首先给出了如何确定VLF波发射点和接收点传播路径所在大圆的方法, 接着分析了获取波导结构中不同阶波导模式传播系数的耦合模理论, 数值讨论了不同阶波导模式的衰减率和相对相速度随模式数和工作频率的变化关系, 给出了波导不同结构参数对一阶模衰减率和相对相速度的影响.与文献结果对比验证了本文有限元方法模拟VLF波传播的正确性和高效性.最后利用实验和数值仿真结果, 通过对电子密度国际电离层参考模型进行修正, 讨论了澳大利亚—青岛台VLF波幅度和相位日变化的规律.本文工作为研究地-电离层波导结构VLF波电磁特性以及提高陆基超远程甚低频导航系统的精度, 提供了新的思路和方法.