液化场地桥台地震破坏模式研究综述

桥台是连接桥梁和路堤的重要结构,在桥梁的整个结构中占据了极其重要的位置。桥台破坏不仅引起自身功能丧失,还可能引发落梁等震害,并最终导致桥梁垮塌。而位于液化场地中的桥台,地震对其影响非常严重。目前国内对桥台震害的研究与我国快速发展的桥梁建设相比仍然不足。在查阅了大量国内外文献资料的基础上,针对液化场地桥台地震破坏模式的研究现状进行深入分析,总结了目前关于液化场地桥台震害破坏原因及破坏模式影响因素等问题的研究成果,论述了目前研究中存在的问题及以后的研究方向,探讨了地震区桥台震害研究领域需要解决的问题。     

云南地区地震的桥梁震害

收集了云南地区从１６２４～１９８８年遭受地震破坏的各类桥梁６７座的震害资料,并给出了桥梁的震害、建造年代、场地等情况及破坏程度的划分,根据云南地区地震对桥梁的破坏,石拱桥占的数量较多,钢筋混凝土桥较少。章主要对石拱桥及钢筋混凝土桥的构件震害表现进行分析探讨,认为在一般场地地质条件下,当受到不大于Ⅷ度地震的作用,桥梁受力构件基本不会产生明显破坏;而在场地不利情况下,Ⅵ、Ⅶ度地震都可能会遭受破坏。     

施甸5.9级地震场地与震害的关系

施甸5．9级地震震源浅导致了其震害偏重，而特殊的场地条件则导致许多烈度异常区（点）的产生。概述了施甸县历史地震的情况，介绍了旋甸5．9级地震震区自然根貌和场地特征，以近百年现场调查点资料为基础，将影响震害的四种主要因素，按其对震害影响程度的轻重分类，分析了该次地震的震害分布特征与异常区的场地特征，结果表明，在影响震害的诸多场地因素中，以地基土特性的影响最重。     

1303年洪洞8级地震GIS系统与震害分布特征分析

采用GIS技术，建立了1303年洪洞地震的地理信息系统. 应用GIS平台空间分析功能研究了1303年洪洞地震的震害空间分布特征和地震等震线的特点. 通过与标准地震烈度衰减关系的对比，分析了地震烈度异常分布的空间特征及其与构造、场地条件、盆地之间的关系. 研究了震源与近源地下结构对地表地面运动的影响，探讨了这种烈度分布特征对区域地震区划、抗震设防、震害预测以及地震应急响应等方面的影响.      

姚安6.5级地震场地与震害的关系

介绍了姚安6．5级地震震区地质概貌和场地特征。以100多个现场调查点资料为基础，将影响震害的四种主要因素，按其影响轻重分类，用震害指数分析了该次地震的震害分布和局部场地特征对震害的影响。结果表明，震区未形成震害异常区，但有震害异常点存在。在影响震害的诸多场地因素中，以地基土特性的影响最为严重。     

基于最小二乘支持向量机的城市桥梁震害预测模型研究

针对地震中城市桥梁震害状态具有较强的非线性、复杂性的特点,采用了具有RBF核函数的最小二乘支持向量机(LS-SVM)算法。在大量收集我国地震中城市桥梁震害资料的基础上,将此算法引入桥梁的震害预测中,选取了地震烈度、上部结构、地基失效程度、支座类型、墩台高度、桥梁跨数和场地类别等因素作为模型的特征输入向量,建立了最小二乘支持向量机的桥梁震害预测模型。通过反复地样本训练及模型参数设置,仿真结果表明,该方法具有一定的准确度和可行性。基于最小二乘支持向量机的桥梁震害预测方法是一种可以用于地震中桥梁震害预测的良好方法。     

1979年云南省磨黑地震影响场

1979年3月15日20时52分,在云南省普洱县的磨黑、勐先之间发生了一次震级为6.8的破坏性地震,震中烈度为Ⅸ。作者根据在现场实地调查的119个自然村中各类房屋的震害情况,确定以典型房屋的平均震害指数作为评定一个自然村的震害尺度。选择绘制了四个剖面上没有考虑场地条件影响的震害分布图和六个剖面方向的实际震害衰减平均曲线。讨论了磨黑地震影响场。认为磨黑地震震害分布的不均匀性和烈度衰减的不一致性除了这次地震沿发震断层释放的能量在空间上的分布可能不均匀外,主要是受震区内场地条件的影响。 文中以典型震害实例,再次证明了场地条件对震害的影响。就这次地震而言,软弱地基与基岩或坚硬地基上的震害指数差值平均为0.18;孤突陡坡地形较之平坦缓坡地形的震害有明显加重,其震害指数差值平均为0.19。对于地基土质不均,特别是半挖半填或用毛石堆砌的陡坎地基,使震害加重。     

河北省自然震害特点及其预测

考察了历史地震震害特点,认为自然震害多受自然条件控制,对震害类型起定性作用的是地质地貌条件,地质因素只影响震害的程度。因此,可望在烈度区划的基础上,利用地貌与震害关系的研究成果,对强震的自然震害进行宏观预测。总结了河北省历史上遭遇强震影响所出现的自然震害特点,对全省各地貌单元可能出现的震害进行了宏观预测。在此基础上考虑到工程对场地的要求,将全省区划为四类场地,即无震害或汉有轻微震害的A类场地;场地条件好,但烈度区划高,或者场地条件差,但烈度区划低震害轻的B类场地;可产生各类较重震害的C类场地;以及场地条件差,烈度区划高,可产生严重震害的D类场地。     

近断层地震下可液化场地土反应的数值模拟

液化条件下场地土大变形是造成工程结构失效的主要原因之一。文中以某高速公路特大桥的可液化岸坡近场场地为研究对象,基于PL-Finn液化本构模型,利用FLAC 3D程序对其在地震作用下的动响应全过程进行了数值模拟分析。结果表明,PL-Finn模型可较好地反映地震过程中孔隙水压、液化区的变化规律,并能较好的预测液化后场地土的变形规律。液化引起的地基土大变形对桥梁桩基的影响需引起重视。     

永胜6.O级地震场地与震害的关系

介绍了永胜6.0级地震震区的自然概貌,将影响震害的四种主要场地条件按其影响轻重分类,用震害指数划分了该次地震的震害分布及局部异常区,分析了局部场地特征对震害的影响.结果表明:在影响震害的诸多场地条件中,场地土特性的影响较显著,地形的影响不明显,场地土、覆盖层和地下水的影响有互相制约的现象.     

Babbling brook to thunderous torrent: Using sound to monitor river stage

The passive, ambient sound above the water from a river has previously untapped potential for determining flow characteristics such as stage. Measuring sub-aerial sound could provide a new, efficient way to continuously monitor river stage, without the need for in-stream infrastructure. Previous published work has suggested that there might be a relationship between sound and river stage, but the analysis has been restricted to a narrow range of flow conditions and river morphologies. We present a method to determine site suitability and the process of how to record and analyse sound. Data collected along a 500 m length of the River Washburn during July 2019 is used to determine what makes a site suitable for sound monitoring. We found that sound is controlled by roughness elements in the channel, such as a boulder or weir, which influences the sound produced. On the basis of these findings, we collect audio recordings from six sites around the northeast of England, covering a range of flow conditions and different roughness elements, since 2019. We use data from those sites collected during storms Ciara and Dennis to produce a relationship between this sound and river stage. Our analysis has shown a positive relationship between an R² of 0.73 and 0.99 in all rivers, but requires careful site selection and data processing to achieve the best results. We introduce a filter that is capable of isolating a river's sound from other environmental sound. Future work in examining the role of these roughness elements is required to understand the full extent of this technique. By demonstrating that sound can operate as a hydrometric tool, we suggest that sound monitoring could be used to provide cost-effective monitoring devices, either to detect relative change in a river or, after more research, a reliable stage measurement.     

A stochastic integral equation analog of rainfall-runoff processes for evaluating modeling uncertainty

In this paper a very general rainfall-runoff model structure (described below) is shown to reduce to a unit hydrograph model structure. For the general model, a multi-linear unit hydrograph approach is used to develop subarea runoff, and is coupled to a multi-linear channel flow routing method to develop a link-node rainfall-runoff model network. The spatial and temporal rainfall distribution over the catchment is probabilistically related to a known rainfall data source located in the catchment in order to account for the stochastic nature of rainfall with respect to the rain gauge measured data. The resulting link node model structure is a series of stochastic integral equations, one equation for each subarea. A cumulative stochastic integral equation is developed as a sum of the above series, and includes the complete spatial and temporal variabilities of the rainfall over the catchment. The resulting stochastic integral equation is seen to be an extension of the well-known single area unit hydrograph method, except that the model output of a runoff hydrograph is a distribution of outcomes (or realizations) when applied to problems involving prediction of storm runoff; that is, the model output is a set of probable runoff hydrographs, each outcome being the results of calibration to a known storm event.     

A stochastic integral equation analog of rainfall-runoff processes for evaluating modeling uncertainty

In this paper a very general rainfall-runoff model structure (described below) is shown to reduce to a unit hydrograph model structure. For the general model, a multi-linear unit hydrograph approach is used to develop subarea runoff, and is coupled to a multi-linear channel flow routing method to develop a link-node rainfall-runoff model network. The spatial and temporal rainfall distribution over the catchment is probabilistically related to a known rainfall data source located in the catchment in order to account for the stochastic nature of rainfall with respect to the rain gauge measured data. The resulting link node model structure is a series of stochastic integral equations, one equation for each subarea. A cumulative stochastic integral equation is developed as a sum of the above series, and includes the complete spatial and temporal variabilities of the rainfall over the catchment. The resulting stochastic integral equation is seen to be an extension of the well-known single area unit hydrograph method, except that the model output of a runoff hydrograph is a distribution of outcomes (or realizations) when applied to problems involving prediction of storm runoff; that is, the model output is a set of probable runoff hydrographs, each outcome being the results of calibration to a known storm event.     

Updating default depths in the ISC bulletin

The International Seismological Centre (ISC) publishes the definitive global bulletin of earthquake locations. In the ISC bulletin, we aim to obtain a free depth, but often this is not possible. Subsequently, the first option is to obtain a depth derived from depth phases. If depth phases are not available, we then use the reported depth from a reputable local agency. Finally, as a last resort, we set a default depth.In the past, common depths of 10, 33, or multiples of 50 km have been assigned. Assigning a more meaningful default depth, specific to a seismic region will increase the consistency of earthquake locations within the ISC bulletin and allow the ISC to publish better positions and magnitude estimates. It will also improve the association of reported secondary arrivals to corresponding seismic events.We aim to produce a global set of default depths, based on a typical depth for each area, from well-constrained events in the ISC bulletin or where depth could be constrained using a consistent set of depth phase arrivals provided by a number of different reporters.In certain areas, we must resort to using other assumptions. For these cases, we use a global crustal model (Crust2.0) to set default depths to half the thickness of the crust.     

D) UNITED Nations

Synopsis

In areas of accentuated relief, some of the basic assumptions made in the use of standard methods of assessing areal mean rainfall are often untenable. It is shown in this paper, that, not only does topography affect the actual rainfall distribution, but that the areal variability, measured as the correlation between any two points, is also dependent on the relief. Two methods are used to show this. Once method compares the areal variability of a flat area to one of accentuated relief, while the second method relates areal variability to topographic factors using a multiple regression technique.

The conclusions reached are then used for three purposed. The first is to develop a method of ascribing objectively areas or points to a particular raingauge, taking into account the nature of the terrain. The second is to establish a procedure for estimating the rainfall at ungauged points, by taking into account the rainfall at a selected nearby rainguage and the topographic situation of the points, and the third purpose is to provide means of establishing a correction factor to be applied to a raingauge reading in order that the reading may more accurately represent the area ascribed to it.     

An iterative technique to delineate protection buffers for wetlands in regions subject to intensive groundwater pumping

Wetlands are vulnerable to groundwater extraction, which has proven detrimental to aquatic ecosystems around the planet. As wetlands rank among the world’s most endangered ecosystems, versatile strategies are required to protect them. This paper provides a modelling-based method to delineate protection buffers in wetlands subject to groundwater extraction. The technique is sufficiently flexible to cater to a wide variety of conditions, and simple enough to underpin management decisions on a daily basis. A numerical model is used to obtain a map of the critical rate of groundwater abstraction, based on the distance between wetlands and suitable discharge thresholds. The outcomes determine the allowed pumping rate at any point under steady and transient-state conditions. A new iteration is developed every time a new pumping allowance is made. This procedure is demonstrated by means of hypothetical scenarios, as well as by a case study application in the Valle del Cauca region, Colombia.     

A DEVICE FOR MEASURING GULLY HEADWALL MORPHOLOGY

This paper describes a low-cost device for measuring the three-dimensional morphology of a gully headwall. The device was designed to operate in a gully system with the following characteristics: overhanging banks caused by a thick, dense root mat; retreat of the underlying unconsolidated sediments through small slab failures, leading to a considerable variation in retreat rate at each point on the headwall; and changes in the orientation of the headwall owing to changes in sediment properties and the topographical and hydrological controls of gully growth. The device is used to measure a series of closely spaced vertical profiles of the headwall, and the collected data are combined to draw a contour map showing the distance from the plane of the instrument to the headwall. Comparing maps for sequential times enables retreat rates for the diffferent proportions of the headwall to be quantified.     

Spatial rainfall model using a pattern classifier for estimating missing daily rainfall data

Missing data in daily rainfall records are very common in water engineering practice. However, they must be replaced by proper estimates to be reliably used in hydrologic models. Presented herein is an effort to develop a new spatial daily rainfall model that is specifically intended to fill in gaps in a daily rainfall dataset. The proposed model is different from a convectional daily rainfall generation scheme in that it takes advantage of concurrent measurements at the nearby sites to increase the accuracy of estimation. The model is based on a two-step approach to handle the occurrence and the amount of daily rainfalls separately. This study tested four neural network classifiers for a rainfall occurrence processor, and two regression techniques for a rainfall amount processor. The test results revealed that a probabilistic neural network approach is preferred for determining the occurrence of daily rainfalls, and a stepwise regression with a log-transformation is recommended for estimating daily rainfall amounts.     

Morphodynamic assessment of side channel systems using a simple one‐dimensional bifurcation model and a comparison with aerial images

Side channel construction is a common intervention applied to increase a river's conveyance capacity and to increase its ecological value. Past modelling efforts suggest two mechanisms affecting the morphodynamic change of a side channel: (1) a difference in channel slope between the side channel and the main channel and (2) bend flow just upstream of the bifurcation. The objective of this paper was to assess the conditions under which side channels generally aggrade or degrade and to assess the characteristic timescales of the associated morphological change. We use a one‐dimensional bifurcation model to predict the development of side channel systems and the characteristic timescale for a wide range of conditions. We then compare these results to multitemporal aerial images of four side channel systems. We consider the following mechanisms at the bifurcation to be important for side channel development: sediment diversion due to the bifurcation angle, sediment diversion due to the transverse bed slope, partitioning of suspended load, mixed sediment processes such as sorting at the bifurcation, bank erosion, deposition due to vegetation, and floodplain sedimentation. There are limitations to using a one‐dimensional numerical model as it can only account for these mechanisms in a parametrized manner, but the model reproduces general behaviour of the natural side channels until floodplain‐forming processes become important. The main result is a set of stability diagrams with key model parameters that can be used to assess the development of a side channel system and the associated timescale, which will aid in the future design and maintenance of side channel systems. © 2017 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.