The origin and evolution of skarn-forming fluids from the Phu Lon deposit,northern Loei Fold Belt,Thailand: Evidence from fluid inclusion and sulfur isotope studies

The Phu Lon skarn Cu–Au deposit is located in the northern Loei Fold Belt (LFB), Thailand. It is hosted by Devonian volcano-sedimentary sequences intercalated with limestone and marble units, intruded by diorite and quartz monzonite porphyries. Phu Lon is a calcic skarn with both endoskarn and exoskarn facies. In both skarn facies, andradite and diopside comprise the main prograde skarn minerals, whereas epidote, chlorite, tremolite, actinolite and calcite are the principal retrograde skarn minerals.Four types of fluid inclusions in garnet were distinguished: (1) liquid-rich inclusions; (2) daughter mineral-bearing inclusions; (3) salt-saturated inclusions; and (4) vapor-rich inclusions. Epidote contains only one type of fluid inclusion: liquid-rich inclusions. Fluid inclusions associated with garnet (prograde skarn stage) display high homogenization temperatures and moderate salinities (421.6–468.5 °C; 17.4–23.1 wt% NaCl equiv.). By contrast, fluid inclusions associated with epidote (retrograde skarn stage) record lower homogenization temperatures and salinities (350.9–399.8 °C; 0.5–8 wt% NaCl equiv.). These data suggest a possible mixing of saline magmatic fluids with external, dilute fluid sources (e.g., meteoric fluids), as the system cooled. Some fluid inclusions in garnet contain hematite daughters, suggesting an oxidizing magmatic environment. Sulfur isotope determinations on sulfide minerals from both the prograde and retrograde stages show a uniform and narrow range of δ³⁴S values (?2.6 to ?1.1 ‰ δ³⁴S), suggesting that the ore-forming fluid contained sulfur of orthomagmatic origin. Overall, the Phu Lon deposit is interpreted as an oxidized Cu–Au skarn based on the mineralogy and fluid inclusion characteristics.     

Fluid inclusion, stable isotope and Ar-Ar evidence for the age and origin of gold-bearing quartz veins at Mont Chemin, Switzerland

Summary A new Swiss gold occurrence at Mont Chemin, comprising gold-bearing quartz veins, displays many characteristics that are typical of mesothermal gold deposits within the Alps and globally. The most notable of these features are: i) the presence of NaCl-H₂O-CO₂-bearing fluid with an XCO₂ of approximately 0.016 and NaCl equivalents in the range 4.6 to 10.6 weight percent, ii) greenschist formational temperatures and pressures in the range 265-285 °C and 700-1400 bars; and iii) the proximity of the occurrence to the Rhone-Simplon Line, a deep crustal structure in the Swiss Alps.Corrected Ar-Ar data for hydrothermal adularia, considered to be contemporaneous with mineral deposition from the gold-bearing fluid, yields an age of 9.9 ±1.0 Ma. Geothermal gradients and uplift rates derived from the Ar-Ar age data and the geothermometry are in agreement with existing data for this region, and indicate that the hydrothermal activity at the Mont Chemin gold occurrence records one of the last Alpine metamorphic events in the northeastern Mont Blanc massif.Temperature estimates from fluid-muscovite-quartz-feldspar equilibrium and oxygen isotope thermometry of coexisting adularia and quartz are combined with the fluid inclusion isochores to derive depositional pressures. These data yield geothermal gradients on the order of 50 °C/km and uplift rates of 0.44 mm/a for the NE portion of the Mont Blanc massif.

---

Evidenz aus Flüssigkeitseinschluß-, stabilen Isotopen- und Ar- Ar Daten fü r das Alter und den Ursprung Gold führender Quarzgänge am Mont Chemin, Schweiz

Zusammenfassung Ein neues Schweizer Goldvorkommen am Mont Chernin, es handelt sich um Goldführende Quarzgänge, zeigt viele Charakteristika, die für mesothermale Goldlagerstätten der Alpen und weltweit typisch sind: i) Die Anwesenheit von NaCl-H₂O-CO₂ Fluiden mit einem XCO₂ von ca. 0.016 und NaCl zwischen 4.6 und 10.6 Gew. % Äquiv.ii) Grünschieferfazielle Bildungstemperaturen und -drucke von 265-285°C bzw. 7001400bar. iii) Die Nähe der Vorkommen zur Rhone-Simplon Linie, einer tiefgreifenden Struktur in der Kruste der Schweizer Alpen.Korrigierte Ar-Ar Daten von hydrothermalem Adular, der als zeitgleich mit den Minerallagerstätten gebildet, angesehen wird, ergaben ein Alter von 9.9 ± 1.0 Ma. Die aus aus den Ar-Ar Daten bestimmten geothermalen Gradienten und Hebungsraten und die Ergebnisse der Geothermometrie stimmen mit bisher existierenden Daten aus dieser Region überein und zeigen, daß die hydrothermale Aktivität in den Goldvorkommen des Monte Chemin eines der letzten alpidischen metamorphen Ereignisse im nordöstlichen Mont Blanc Massiv darstellt.Temperaturabschätzungen aus Fluid-Muscovit-Quarz-Feldspat Gleichgewichten und Sauerstoffisotopen-Thermometrie an koexistierendem Quarz und Adular werden mit den Isochoren der Flüssigkeitseinschlüsse kombiniert, um die Bildungsdrucke abzuleiten. Diese Daten ergeben geothermische Gradienten in der Größenordnung von ca. 50 °C/km und Hebungsraten von 0.44 mm/Jahr für den Nordostteil des Mont Blanc Massives.

     

冈底斯西段罗布真浅成低温热液型金银矿的成矿流体演化:来自流体包裹体、H-O同位素的证据

西藏昂仁县罗布真金银矿位于冈底斯成矿带西段,其大地构造位置属于南拉萨微陆块,矿体受北西西的断裂构造控制,呈脉状、透镜状产于始新世帕那组火山岩中。按照矿石工业类型分类,矿石类型可分为角砾岩型、石英脉型和蚀变岩型等三类,主要金银矿石矿物为自然金和碲银矿等。矿区广泛繁育不同特征的热液脉体,通过系统的野外观测以及全面的岩相学研究,依据矿物共生组合、脉体切穿关系及蚀变特征,将热液脉体从早到晚划分为石英-黄铁矿阶段(S1)的石英-黄铁矿大脉、玉髓华石英-金-多金属硫化物阶段(S2)的石英-金属硫化物网脉、石英-碳酸盐矿物阶段(S3)的石英-方解石细脉。罗布真金银矿床热液脉体主要发育气液两相流体包裹体(富液两相包裹体、富气两相包裹体)和含子矿物(碳酸盐矿物)三相流体包裹体。本文在野外地质调查的基础上,对不同成矿阶段的石英脉进行了流体包裹体的岩相学观测、显微测温、成分分析以及H-O同位素测试。S1阶段流体包裹体的形成温度集中在310~330 ℃,盐度(w(NaCl_eq))集中在5.0%~10.1%,密度介于0.60~0.80 g/cm³;S2阶段流体包裹体的形成温度集中在240~280 ℃,盐度介于3.0%~7.0%,密度介于0.70~0.90 g/cm³;S3阶段流体包裹体的形成温度集中在121~215 ℃,盐度集中在1.0%~5.0%,密度集中在0.85~1.00 g/cm³。拉曼分析表明,罗布真金银矿的流体包裹体成分以H₂O为主,并含有少量的CO₂、N₂、CH₄等气体及方解石子晶。各热液脉体石英中流体包裹体的δ${{\text{D}}_{{{\text{H}}_{2}}\text{O},\text{V-SMOW}}}$值的变化范围为-106.1‰~-97.5‰,δ¹⁸${{\text{O}}_{{{\text{H}}_{2}}\text{O},\text{V-SMOW}}}$值的变化范围为-7.33‰~-7.13‰,展示其成矿流体主要源自火山岩围岩中的循环地下水,在早阶段还有少量岩浆水的加入。成矿流体在岩浆作用驱动下,沿着断裂从深部封闭体系运移到浅部的开放体系,迅速突破临界状态减压沸腾并产生相分离导致金属硫化物沉淀,形成矿化。随着含矿热液成矿物质及金属硫化物的大量析出,流体温度、盐度迅速降低,金属矿物成矿作用随之结束。罗布真金银矿床的成矿流体为中低温、低盐度、中低密度并含有少量CO₂、N₂、CH₄等气体的流体,具有典型的浅成低温热液矿床成矿流体的特征。     

豫西萑香洼金矿床成矿机制探讨：流体包裹体和稳定同位素证据

萑香洼金矿位于华北陆块南缘熊耳山地区，是大型的构造蚀变岩- 石英脉复合型金矿床。该矿床热液成矿作用经历了4个阶段：黄铁矿- 石英阶段（Ⅰ）、石英- 黄铁矿阶段（Ⅱ）、石英- 多金属硫化物阶段（Ⅲ）和碳酸盐阶段（Ⅳ）。为查明成矿流体的类型、性质、演化特征及成矿物质来源，对脉石英流体包裹体进行了系统的显微测温、成分及H、O、S同位素测试分析，在此基础上，探讨了成矿机制。研究结果表明，第Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ阶段主要发育CO 2- H 2O- NaCl型包裹体和NaCl- H 2O型包裹体，以富液相包裹体为主，同时发育少量富气相包裹体，第Ⅳ阶段仅发育NaCl- H 2O型包裹体。从早到晚，各成矿阶段包裹体的均一温度分别集中在260~320℃、220~280℃、180~240℃和120~180℃，盐度分别集中在5%~9%NaCleq、7%~12%NaCleq、5%~10%NaCleq和0%~2%NaCleq，成矿流体由早阶段的中温低盐度热液体系向晚阶段的低温低盐度热液体系演化。石英- 硫化物（Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ）阶段流体气相成分以H 2O、CO 2为主，含少量的H 2S、N 2、C 2H 6、CH 4、CO、H 2等，液相成分中金属阳离子以Na+为主，阴离子以SO 42-、Cl-为主；碳酸盐阶段成矿流体中多数离子含量较早阶段出现了降低。H- O同位素研究结果表明：第Ⅰ阶段至第Ⅲ阶段的成矿流体δ18O 水分别为3. 8‰~11. 9‰（均值7. 7‰）、3. 3‰~8. 2‰（均值5. 2‰）、1. 2‰，相应的δD分别为-96‰~-72‰（均值-84‰）、-98‰~-67‰（均值-87‰）、-90‰，早阶段成矿流体与岩浆热液特征相似，随着成矿作用的进行，大气降水出现一定程度的混入；萑香洼金矿δ34S的值介于-24. 2‰~0. 6‰，其中成矿早阶段未分馏的δ34S的值主要在0值附近，认为萑香洼金矿硫源与早白垩世岩浆- 热液系统或幔源流体相关，二者或参与成矿。萑香洼金矿为早白垩世区域岩石圈减薄、伸展环境下形成的“克拉通破坏型金矿床”。     

三江北段查涌铜多金属矿床成矿流体特征——流体包裹体及氢氧同位素证据

在矿床地质特征研究和成矿阶段划分的基础上,选取三江成矿带北段查涌铜多金属矿床主成矿热液期的矿石样品,进行了流体包裹体显微测温和氢氧同位素测试。流体包裹体研究结果表明,矿物中包裹体以富液相为主,均一温度为320~360℃,盐度w(NaCl,eq)=3%~5%,显示岩浆热液矿床的流体特征;氢氧同位素测试结果显示,δD=-110.0×10~(-3)~-95.5×10~(-3),平均-104.4×10~(-3),δ(~(18)O_(V-SMOW))=-2.2×10~(-3)~2.5×10~(-3),平均-0.6×10~(-3),表明其主成矿期的成矿流体以岩浆水为主,并伴有少量大气降水的加入。     

Fluid inclusion and stable isotope evidence for the genesis of quartz-scheelite veins, Metaggitsi area, central Chalkidiki Peninsula, N. Greece

Scheelite mineralization accompanied by muscovite and albite, and traces of Mo-stolzite and stolzite occurs in epigenetic quartz vein systems hosted by two-mica gneissic schists, and locally amphibolites, of the Paleozoic or older Vertiskos Formation, in the Metaggitsi area, central Chalkidiki, N Greece. Three types of primary fluid inclusions coexist in quartz and scheelite: type 1, the most abundant, consists of mixed H₂O-CO₂ inclusions with highly variable (20–90 vol.%) CO₂ contents and salinities between 0.2 and 8.3 equivalent weight % NaCl. Densities range from 0.79 to 0.99 g/cc; type 1 inclusions contain also traces (<2 mol%) of CH₄. Type 2 inclusions are nearly 100 vol.% liquid CO_2, with traces of CH₄, and densities between 0.75 and 0.88 g/cc. Type 3 inclusions, the least abundant, contain an aqueous liquid of low salinity (0.5 to 8.5 equivalent weight% NaCl) with 10–30 vol.% H₂O gas infrequently containing also small amounts of CO₂ (<2 mol%); densities range from 0.72 to 0.99 g/cc. The wide range of coexisting fluid inclusion compositions is interpreted as a result of fluid immiscibility during entrapment. Immiscibility is documented by the partitioning of CH₄ and CO₂, into gas-rich (CO₂-rich) type 1 inclusions, and the conformity of end-member compositions trapped in type 1 inclusions to chemical equilibrium fractionation at the minimum measured homogenization temperatures, and calculated homogenization pressures. Minimum measured homogenization temperatures of aqueous and gas-rich type 1 inclusions of 220°–250 °C, either to the H₂O, or to the CO₂ phase, is considered the best estimate of temperature of formation of the veins, and temperature of scheelite deposition. Corresponding fluid pressures were between 1.2 and 2.6 kbar. Oxygen fugacities during mineralization varied from 10⁻³⁵ to 10⁻³¹ bar and were slightly above the synthetic Ni-NiO buffer values. The fluid inclusion data combined with δ¹⁸O water values of 3 to 6 per mil (SMOW) and δ¹³C CO₂₋ fluid of −1.2 to +4.3 per mil (PDB), together with geologic data, indicate generation of mineralizing fluids primarily by late- to post-metamorphic devolatilization reactions. Received: 8 April 1997 / Accepted: 8 July 1997     

The Nilpena ureilite,an unusual polymict breccia: implications for origin

Nilpena (173 g), a new ureilite find from the Parachilna area of South Australia, is an unusual polymict breccia containing polymineralic aggregates, mineral fragments and achondritic and chondritic lithic enclaves in a dark, C-rich matrix. The polymineralic aggregates consist of equigranular-textured olivine Fa₂₀ and pigeonite En₇₅Wo₉FS₁₆, and exhibit evidence of shock in the form of undulose extinction and kink-banding. Monomineralic fragments consist of olivine Fa_19–24 (with highly forsteritic rims up to Fa₃) and pigeonite, and appear to be derived by brecciation of the polymineralic aggregates. The enclave material consists of lithic granular olivine fragments, porphyritic enstatite fragments (either enstatite chondrite or aubrite), olivine-clinobronzite fragments resembling an H3 chondrite, and eucritelike lithic fragments composed of plagioclase An₉₈, salitic clinopyroxene Wo_48.5En_31.4Fs_20.1 and olivine Fa_49–53. The matrix contains kamacite (generally rich in P), schreibersite and troilite. The texture of Nilpena suggests formation by disruption of a olivine-pigeonite granular aggregate while the presence of the diverse chondritic and achondritic enclave material suggests an origin as a surface or near-surface breccia.Like other ureilites Nilpena is strongly differentiated with respect to cosmic abundances but is significantly enriched in Ba and LREE. A lack of correlation of lithophile elements with $\text{Fe}\text{(Fe + Mg)}$ ratio among ureilites suggests that the differentiation was not caused by varying degrees of partial melting of a homogeneous source. A cumulate origin therefore seems more plausible.     

The evolution of the hydrothermal IOCG system in the Mantoverde district,northern Chile: new evidence from microthermometry and stable isotope geochemistry

New microthermometric data combined with stable isotope geochemistry and paragenetic relationships support a previously suggested cooling–mixing model for the iron oxide–copper–gold mineralization in the Mantoverde district. Fluid inclusions show characteristics of a CO₂-bearing aqueous NaCl ± CaCl₂ salt system. The evolution of the Mantoverde hydrothermal system is characterized by (1) an early hypersaline, high to moderate temperature fluid; (2) a moderate saline, moderate temperature fluid; and (3) a low saline, moderate to low temperature fluid. Early magnetite formation took place at median temperatures of 435.0°C, whereas hematite formed at median temperatures of 334.4°C. The main sulfide mineralization texturally post-dates the iron oxides and occurred before late-stage calcite, which developed at a median temperature of 244.8°C. Boiling occurs only locally and is of no relevance for the ore formation. The microthermometric and stable isotope data are supportive for a fluid cooling and mixing model, and suggestive for a predominantly magmatic–hydrothermal fluid component during the iron oxide and main sulfide mineralization. Thereafter, the incursion of a nonmagmatic fluid of ultimately meteoric or seawater gains more importance.     

Stable isotope and fluid inclusion evidence for the origin of the Brandberg West area Sn–W vein deposits, NW Namibia

The Brandberg West region of NW Namibia is dominated by poly-deformed turbidites and carbonate rocks of the Neoproterozoic Damara Supergoup, which have been regionally metamorphosed to greenschist facies and thermally metamorphosed up to mid-amphibolite facies by Neoproterozoic granite plutons. The meta-sedimentary rocks host Damaran-age hydrothermal quartz vein-hosted Sn–W mineralization at Brandberg West and numerous nearby smaller deposits. Fluid inclusion microthermometric studies of the vein quartz suggests that the ore-forming fluids at the Brandberg West mine were CO₂-bearing aqueous fluids represented by the NaCl–CaCl₂–H₂O–CO₂ system with moderate salinity (mean=8.6 wt% NaCl_equivalent).Temperatures determined using oxygen isotope thermometry are 415–521°C (quartz–muscovite), 392–447°C (quartz–cassiterite), and 444–490°C (quartz–hematite). At Brandberg West, the oxygen isotope ratios of quartz veins and siliciclastic host rocks in the mineralized area are lower than those in the rocks and veins of the surrounding areas suggesting that pervasive fluid–rock interaction occurred during mineralization. The O- and H-isotope data of quartz–muscovite veins and fluid inclusions indicate that the ore fluids were dominantly of magmatic origin, implying that mineralization occurred above a shallow granite pluton. Simple mass balance calculations suggest water/rock ratios of 1.88 (closed system) and 1.01 (open system). The CO₂ component of the fluid inclusions had similar δ ¹³C to the carbonate rocks intercalated with the turbidites. It is most likely that mineralization at Brandberg West was caused by a combination of an impermeable marble barrier and interaction of the fluids with the marble. The minor deposits in the area have quartz veins with higher δ ¹⁸O values, which is consistent with these deposits being similar geological environments exposed at higher erosion levels.     

The Paleoproterozoic carbonate-hosted Pering Zn–Pb deposit, South Africa. II: fluid inclusion, fluid chemistry and stable isotope constraints

The Pering deposit is the prime example of Zn–Pb mineralisation hosted by stromatolitic dolostones of the Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup. The hydrothermal deposit centers on subvertical breccia pipes that crosscut stromatolitic dolostones of the Reivilo Formation, the lowermost portion of the Campbellrand Subgroup. Four distinct stages of hydrothermal mineralisation are recognised. Early pyritic rock matrix brecciation is followed by collomorphous sphalerite mineralisation with replacive character, which, in turn, is succeeded by coarse grained open-space-infill of sphalerite, galena, sparry dolomite, and quartz. Together, the latter two stages account for ore-grade Zn–Pb mineralisation. The fourth and final paragenetic stage is characterised by open-space-infill by coarse sparry calcite. The present study documents the results of a detailed geochemical study of the Pering deposit, including fluid inclusion microthermometry, fluid chemistry and stable isotope geochemistry of sulphides (δ³⁴S) and carbonate gangue (δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O). Microthermometric fluid inclusion studies carried out on a series of coarsely grained crystalline quartz and sphalerite samples of the latter, open-space-infill stage of the main mineralisation event reveal the presence of three major fluid types: (1) a halite–saturated aqueous fluid H₂O–NaCl–CaCl₂ (>33 wt% NaCl equivalent) brine, (2) low-salinity meteoric fluid (<7 wt% NaCl) and (3) a carbonic CH₄–CO₂–HS⁻ fluid that may be derived from organic material present within the host dolostone. Mixing of these fluids have given rise to variable mixtures (H₂O–CaCl₂–NaCl ±(CH₄–CO₂–HS⁻), 2 to 25 wt% NaCl+CaCl₂). Heterogeneous trapping of the aqueous and carbonic fluids occurred under conditions of immiscibility. Fluid temperature and pressure conditions during mineralisation are determined to be 200–210°C and 1.1–1.4 kbar, corresponding to a depth of mineralisation of 4.1–5.2 km. Chemical analyses of the brine inclusions show them to be dominated by Na and Cl with lesser amounts of Ca, K and SO₄. Fluid ratios of Cl/Br indicate that they originated as halite saturated seawater brines that mixed with lower salinity fluids. Analyses of individual brine inclusions document high concentrations of Zn and Pb (∼1,500 and ∼200 ppm respectively) and identify the brine as responsible for the introduction of base metals. Stable isotope data were acquired for host rock and hydrothermal carbonates (dolomite, calcite) and sulphides (pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite). The ore-forming sulphides show a trend to ³⁴S enrichment from pyrite nodules in the pyritic rock matrix breccia (δ³⁴S = −9.9 to +3.7‰) to paragenetically late chalcopyrite of the main mineralisation event (δ³⁴S = +30.0‰). The observed trend is attributed to Rayleigh fractionation during the complete reduction of sulphate in a restricted reservoir by thermochemical sulphate reduction, and incremental precipitation of the generated sulphide. The initial sulphate reservoir is expected to have had an isotopic signature around 0‰, and may well represent magmatic sulphur, oxidised and leached by the metal-bearing brine. The δ¹⁸O values of successive generations of dolomite, from host dolostone to paragenetically late saddle dolomite follow a consistent trend that yields convincing evidence for extensive water rock interaction at variable fluid–rock ratios. Values of δ¹³C remain virtually unchanged and similar to the host dolostone, thus suggesting insignificant influx of CO₂ during the early and main stages of mineralisation. On the other hand, δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O of post-ore calcite define two distinct clusters that may be attributed to changes in the relative abundance in CH₄ and CO₂ during waning stages of hydrothermal fluid flow.     

The Rosita Hills epithermal Ag-Base metal deposits, Colorado, USA A stable isotope and fluid inclusion study

The Rosita Hills volcanic centre is an alkalicalcic, mid-Tertiary complex overlying orthoand paragneissic basement, on the eastern margin of the Rio Grande Rift in south central Colorado, USA. The centre contains vein-hosted, adularia-sericite type, epithermal Ag and base-metal mineralisation with minor Au. Stable isotope studies (O and H) of whole rock and mineral separate (quartz and sericite) samples from veins and hydrothermal eruption breccias show that the hydrothermal fluid had both magmatic and meteoric components. The D and ¹⁸O values of the hydrothermal fluid, calculated from mineral values, range from -22 to -103 and 0.5 to 5.9 respectively. Fluid inclusion data from vein minerals (quartz, baryte and sphalerite) and from an advanced argillic lithocap overlying the veins again show that the hydrothermal system had more than one component fluid. Fluid inclusions have salinities which range from 1.7 to 25.1 wt% NaCl equivalent and show evidence of boiling in the advanced argillic lithocap. Homogenisation temperatures range from 135°C to 298°C. Liquid CO₂ is present in some inclusions. These data indicate that a saline, isotopically heavy fluid mixed with a dilute, isotopically light fluid to precipitate the ore. We argue that the saline, isotopically heavy fluid is magmatic and derived from a resurgent rhyolitic magma below the mineralisation.     

The Gounkoto Au deposit,West Africa: Constraints on ore genesis and volatile sources from petrological,fluid inclusion and stable isotope data

The Loulo–Gounkoto complex in the Kédougou–Kéniéba Inlier hosts three multi-million ounce orogenic gold deposits, situated along the Senegal–Mali Shear Zone. This west Malian gold belt represents the largest West African orogenic gold district outside Ghana. The Gounkoto deposit is hosted to the south of the Gara and Yalea gold mines in the Kofi Series metasedimentary rocks. The ore body is structurally controlled and is characterised by sodic and phyllic alteration, As- and Fe-rich ore assemblages, with abundant magnetite, and overall enrichment in Fe–As–Cu–Au–Ag–W–Ni–Co–REE + minor Te–Pb–Se–Cd. Fluid inclusion analysis indicates that the deposit formed at P–T conditions of approximately 1.4 kbar and 340 °C and that two end member fluids were involved in mineralisation: (1) a moderate temperature (315–340 °C), low salinity (< 10 wt.% NaCl equiv.), low density (≤ 1 g·cm^− 3), H₂O–CO₂–NaCl–H₂S ± N₂–CH₄ fluid; (2) a high temperature (up to 445 °C), hypersaline (~ 40 wt.% NaCl equiv.), high density (~ 1.3 g·cm^− 3), H₂O–CO₂–NaCl ± FeCl₂ fluid. Partial mixing of these fluids within the Jog Zone at Gounkoto enhanced phase separation in the aqueo-carbonic fluid and acted as a precipitation mechanism for Au. These findings demonstrate the widespread, if heterogeneously distributed, nature of fluid mixing as an ore forming process in the Loulo–Gounkoto complex, operating over at least a 30 km strike length of the shear zone. Stable isotope analyses of ore components at Gounkoto indicate a dominant metamorphic source for H₂O, H₂S and CO₂, and by extension Au. It thus can be reasoned that both the aqueo-carbonic and the hypersaline fluid at Gounkoto are of metamorphic origin and that the high levels of salinity in the brine are likely derived from evaporite dissolution.     

西藏邦铺斑岩矽卡岩矿床成矿流体特征——来自流体包裹体及C_H_O同位素的制约

选取西藏冈底斯斑岩成矿带东段的邦铺矿床斑岩矿区2条勘探线上的11个钻孔,进行了详细的岩芯编录和矿物组合、脉体穿切关系研究,将该矿床内与斑岩成矿相关的脉体划分为A、B、D脉3种类型。通过对矽卡岩矿区的详细地表及平硐观察,发现了石榴子石、阳起石、绿帘石等一系列代表流体演化特征的矿物。邦铺矿床具有典型斑岩型矿床的蚀变分带特征,从中心向外依次表现为黑云母化-硅化-绢云母化-青磐岩化,泥化呈"补丁状"无规则分布在绢云母化和青磐岩化之上。矽卡岩化则以典型矽卡岩矿物的出现为特征。A脉中绝大多数包裹体均一温度为320~550℃,盐度主要集中在两个区间内,分别为17.0%~22.0%(气液两相包裹体)和30.8%~67.2%(含子晶包裹体);B脉中绝大多数包裹体均一温度为380~550℃,盐度主要集中在1.6%~10.1%、23.2%~24.5%(气液两相包裹体)和30.8%~67.2%(含子晶包裹体)3个区间内;D脉中绝大多数包裹体均一温度为213~450℃,盐度为7.3%~11.6%。流体包裹体研究表明,与斑岩成矿的相关流体具有从高温、高盐度向低温、低盐度演化的特征;形成A、B脉的流体发生了强烈的沸腾作用,由此导致的压力波动是Mo、Cu沉淀的主要原因。16件与斑岩成矿相关的石英δDV-SMOW=-107.1‰~-185.8‰,δ18OV-SMOW=9.5‰~14.5‰;15件与矽卡岩成矿相关的石榴子石、绿帘石、石英及方解石δDV-SMOW=-184.7‰~-126‰,δ18OV-SMOW=3.9‰~12.9‰;4件斑岩成矿后期的方解石δ18OV-SMOW=-1.6‰~10.4‰,δCV-PDB=-6.5‰~-3.4‰;6件与矽卡岩成矿相关的方解石δ18OV-SMOW=1.8‰~11.9‰,δCV-PDB=-5.1‰~4.6‰。C_H_O同位素分析数据表明,邦铺整个斑岩-矽卡岩成矿系统流体主要经历了岩浆脱水去气和大气降水加入这两大地质过程。     

Sn-polymetallic greisen-type deposits associated with late-stage rapakivi granites, Brazil: fluid inclusion and stable isotope characteristics

Tin-polymetallic greisen-type deposits in the Itu Rapakivi Province and Rondônia Tin Province, Brazil are associated with late-stage rapakivi fluorine-rich peraluminous alkali-feldspar granites. These granites contain topaz and/or muscovite or zinnwaldite and have geochemical characteristics comparable to the low-P sub-type topaz-bearing granites. Stockworks and veins are common in Oriente Novo (Rondônia Tin Province) and Correas (Itu Rapakivi Province) deposits, but in the Santa Bárbara deposit (Rondônia Tin Province) a preserved cupola with associated bed-like greisen is predominant. The contrasting mineralization styles reflect different depths of formation, spatial relationship to tin granites, and different wall rock/fluid proportions. The deposits contain a similar rare-metal suite that includes Sn (±W, ±Ta, ±Nb), and base-metal suite (Zn–Cu–Pb) is present only in Correas deposit. The early fluid inclusions of the Correas and Oriente Novo deposits are (1) low to moderate-salinity (0–19 wt.% NaCl eq.) CO₂-bearing aqueous fluids homogenizing at 245–450 °C, and (2) aqueous solutions with low CO₂, low to moderate salinity (0–14 wt.% NaCl eq.), which homogenize between 100 and 340 °C. In the Santa Bárbara deposit, the early inclusions are represented by (1) low-salinity (5–12 wt.% NaCl eq.) aqueous fluids with variable CO₂ contents, homogenizing at 340 to 390 °C, and (2) low-salinity (0–3 wt.% NaCl eq.) aqueous fluid inclusions, which homogenize at 320–380 °C. Cassiterite, wolframite, columbite–tantalite, scheelite, and sulfide assemblages accompany these fluids. The late fluid in the Oriente Novo and Correas deposit was a low-salinity (0–6 wt.% NaCl eq.) CO₂-free aqueous solution, which homogenizes at (100–260 °C) and characterizes the sulfide–fluorite–sericite association in the Correas deposit. The late fluid in the Santa Bárbara deposit has lower salinity (0–3 wt.% NaCl eq.) and characterizes the late-barren-quartz, muscovite and kaolinite veins. Oxygen isotope thermometry coupled with fluid inclusion data suggest hydrothermal activity at 240–450 °C, and 1.0–2.6 kbar fluid pressure at Correas and Oriente Novo. The hydrogen isotope composition of breccia-greisen, stockwork, and vein fluids (δ¹⁸O_quartz from 9.9‰ to 10.9‰, δD_H2O from 4.13‰ to 6.95‰) is consistent with a fluid that was in equilibrium with granite at temperatures from 450 to 240 °C. In the Santa Bárbara deposit, the inferred temperatures for quartz-pods and bed-like greisens are much higher (570 and 500 °C, respectively), and that for the cassiterite-quartz-veins is 415 °C. The oxygen and hydrogen isotope composition of greisen and quartz-pods fluids (δ¹⁸O_qtz-H2O=5.5–6.1‰) indicate that the fluid equilibrated with the albite granite, consistent with a magmatic origin. The values for mica (δ¹⁸O_mica-H2O=3.3–9.8‰) suggest mixing with meteoric water. Late muscovite veins (δ¹⁸O_qtz-H2O=−6.4‰) and late quartz (δ¹⁸O_mica-H2O=−3.8‰) indicate involvement of a meteoric fluid. Overall, the stable isotope and fluid inclusion data imply three fluid types: (1) an early orthomagmatic fluid, which equilibrated with granite; (2) a mixed orthomagmatic-meteoric fluid; and (3) a late hydrothermal meteoric fluid. The first two were responsible for cassiterite, wolframite, and minor columbite–tantalite precipitation. Change in the redox conditions related to mixing of magmatic and meteoric fluids favored important sulfide mineralization in the Correas deposit.     

Fluid and gas migration in the North German Basin: fluid inclusion and stable isotope constraints

Fluid inclusions have been studied in minerals infilling fissures (quartz, calcite, fluorite, anhydrite) hosted by Carboniferous and Permian strata from wells in the central and eastern part of the North German Basin in order to decipher the fluid and gas migration related to basin tectonics. The microthermometric data and the results of laser Raman spectroscopy reveal compelling evidence for multiple events of fluid migration. The fluid systems evolved from a H₂O–NaCl±KCl type during early stage of basin subsidence to a H₂O–NaCl–CaCl₂ type during further burial. Locally, fluid inclusions are enriched in K, Cs, Li, B, Rb and other cations indicating intensive fluid–rock interaction of the saline brines with Lower Permian volcanic rocks or sediments. Fluid migration through Carboniferous sediments was often accompanied by the migration of gases. Aqueous fluid inclusions in quartz from fissures in Carboniferous sedimentary rocks are commonly associated with co-genetically trapped CH₄–CO₂ inclusions. P–T conditions estimated, via isochore construction, yield pressure conditions between 620 and 1,650 bar and temperatures between 170 and 300°C during fluid entrapment. The migration of CH₄-rich gases within the Carboniferous rocks can be related to the main stage of basin subsidence and stages of basin uplift. A different situation is recorded in fluid inclusions in fissure minerals hosted by Permian sandstones and carbonates: aqueous fluid inclusions in calcite, quartz, fluorite and anhydrite are always H₂O–NaCl–CaCl₂-rich and show homogenization temperatures between 120 and 180°C. Co-genetically trapped gas inclusions are generally less frequent. When present, they show variable N₂–CH₄ compositions but contain no CO₂. P–T reconstructions indicate low-pressure conditions during fluid entrapment, always below 500 bar. The entrapment of N₂–CH₄ inclusions seems to be related to phases of tectonic uplift during the Upper Cretaceous. A potential source for nitrogen in the inclusions and reservoirs is C_org-rich Carboniferous shales with high nitrogen content. Intensive interaction of brines with Carboniferous or even older shales is proposed from fluid inclusion data (enrichment in Li, Ba, Pb, Zn, Mg) and sulfur isotopic compositions of abundant anhydrite from fissures. The mainly light δ³⁴S values of the fissure anhydrites suggest that sulfate is either derived through oxidation and re-deposition of biogenic sulfur or through mixing of SO₄²⁻-rich formation waters with variable amounts of dissolved biogenic sulfide. An igneous source for nitrogen seems to be unlikely since these rocks have low total nitrogen content and, furthermore, even extremely altered volcanic rocks from the study area do not show a decrease in total nitrogen content.     

A fluid inclusion and stable isotope study of 200 Ma of fluid evolution in the Galway Granite, Connemara, Ireland

Fluid inclusions in granite quartz and three generations of veins indicate that three fluids have affected the Caledonian Galway Granite. These fluids were examined by petrography, microthermometry, chlorite thermometry, fluid chemistry and stable isotope studies. The earliest fluid was a H₂O-CO₂-NaCl fluid of moderate salinity (4–10 wt% NaCl eq.) that deposited late-magmatic molybdenite mineralised quartz veins (V₁) and formed the earliest secondary inclusions in granite quartz. This fluid is more abundant in the west of the batholith, corresponding to a decrease in emplacement depth. Within veins, and to the east, this fluid was trapped homogeneously, but in granite quartz in the west it unmixed at 305–390 °C and 0.7–1.8 kbar. Homogeneous quartz δ¹⁸O across the batholith (9.5 ± 0.4‰n = 12) suggests V₁ precipitation at high temperatures (perhaps 600 °C) and pressures (1–3 kbar) from magmatic fluids. Microthermometric data for V₁ indicate lower temperatures, suggesting inclusion volumes re-equilibrated during cooling. The second fluid was a H₂O-NaCl-KCl, low-moderate salinity (0–10 wt% NaCl eq.), moderate temperature (270–340 °C), high δD (−18 ± 2‰), low δ¹⁸O (0.5–2.0‰) fluid of meteoric origin. This fluid penetrated the batholith via quartz veins (V₂) which infill faults active during post-consolidation uplift of the batholith. It forms the most common inclusion type in granite quartz throughout the batholith and is responsible for widespread retrograde alteration involving chloritization of biotite and hornblende, sericitization and saussuritization of plagioclase, and reddening of K-feldspar. The salinity was generated by fluid-rock interactions within the granite. Within granite quartz this fluid was trapped at 0.5–2.3 kbar, having become overpressured. This fluid probably infiltrated the Granite in a meteoric-convection system during cooling after intrusion, but a later age cannot be ruled out. The final fluid to enter the Granite and its host rocks was a H₂O-NaCl-CaCl₂-KCl fluid with variable salinity (8–28 wt% NaCl eq.), temperature (125–205 °C), δD (−17 to −45‰), δ¹⁸O (−3 to + 1.2‰), δ¹³C_CO2 (−19 to 0‰) and δ³⁴S_sulphate (13–23‰) that deposited veins containing quartz, fluorite, calcite, barite, galena, chalcopyrite sphalerite and pyrite (V₃). Correlations of salinity, temperature, δD and δ¹⁸O are interpreted as the result of mixing of two fluid end-members, one a high-δD (−17 to −8‰), moderate-δ¹⁸O (1.2–2.5‰), high-δ¹³C_CO2 (> −4‰), low-δ³⁴S_sulphate (13‰), high-temperature (205–230 °C), moderate-salinity (8–12 wt% NaCl eq.) fluid, the other a low-δD (−61 to −45‰), low-δ¹⁸O (−5.4 to −3‰), low-δ¹³C (<−10‰), high-δ³⁴S_sulphate (20–23‰) low-temperature (80–125 °C), high-salinity (21–28 wt% NaCl eq.) fluid. Geochronological evidence suggests V₃ veins are late Triassic; the high-δD end-member is interpreted as a contemporaneous surface fluid, probably mixed meteoric water and evaporated seawater and/or dissolved evaporites, whereas the low-δD end-member is interpreted as a basinal brine derived from the adjacent Carboniferous sequence. This study demonstrates that the Galway Granite was a locus for repeated fluid events for a variety of reasons; from expulsion of magmatic fluids during the final stages of crystallisation, through a meteoric convection system, probably driven by waning magmatic heat, to much later mineralisation, concentrated in its vicinity due to thermal, tectonic and compositional properties of granite batholiths which encourage mineralisation long after magmatic heat has abated. Received: 3 April 1996 / Accepted: 5 May 1997     

Fluid evolution in the W–Cu–Zn–Pb San Cristobal vein, Peru: fluid inclusion and stable isotope evidence

The Zn–Pb±Ag±Cu San Cristobal district is located 100 km east of Lima in the western cordillera of Peru. It is centred around the Chumpe intrusion and is composed of vein and carbonate replacement ore types. The main San Cristobal vein presents a paragenesis that can be divided into three stages: (a) an early wolframite–quartz–pyrite stage, (b) a quartz–base metal stage, and (c) a late quartz–carbonate–barite stage.

Fluid inclusions in quartz from the tungsten stage are biphase (LV) at room temperature and homogenise to the liquid phase between 146 and 257 °C. Their salinities range between 2.1 and 5.1 wt.% NaCl equiv. Rare inclusions contain an additional crystal of halite and have salinities of 46–54 wt.% NaCl equiv. Data of the first two stages show a decrease in homogenisation temperatures concomitant with a salinity decline. Fluid inclusions in quartz from the late stage homogenise at higher temperatures, between 252 and 323 °C, with salinities ranging between 4.6 and 6.7 wt.% NaCl equiv.

Hydrogen and oxygen isotope data indicate a two-stage evolution. Isotopic compositions of the fluid associated with the first two stages define a trend with constant δ¹⁸O values and decreasing δD values (δ¹⁸O=3.2‰ to 5.0‰ V-SMOW and δD=−60‰ to −112‰ V-SMOW), which is interpreted as mixing of a dominantly magmatic component with minor meteoric water that had equilibrated with the host rocks. This interpretation is supported by sulphur and lead isotopic data from previous studies. By contrast, the quartz–carbonate–barite stage bears isotopic characteristics defining a trend with a coupled decrease of δ¹⁸O and δD (δ¹⁸O=−8.1‰ to 2.5‰ V-SMOW and δD=−57‰ to −91‰ V-SMOW) and is explained by addition of meteoric water to the system and subsequent mixing with a less important magmatic component.

Different fluid origins are confirmed by laser ablation ICP-MS analyses of the triphase (LVH) and biphase (LV) primary inclusions. The concentrations of the major ore elements, i.e., W, Cu, Zn and Pb, decrease throughout the paragenesis; W, and to a lesser extent Cu, show significant variations, associated with a steep decrease in their concentration. The decreasing concentrations can be explained by mineral deposition and dilution by the meteoric fluid; differences in the rate of decrease indicate selective precipitation of W. Fluid inclusions of the quartz–carbonate stages show an abrupt increase in Ba and Sr concentrations. This is interpreted to reflect a higher volume of host rock silicate alteration, probably due to the increasing size of the fluid flow cell and is explained by the input of a third fluid of unknown origin. LA-ICP-MS analyses show that the fluids were already depleted in W and Cu before reaching the emplacement of carbonate replacement ore type, whereas Zn and Pb were still present in considerable amounts. This is again due to selective precipitation and is consistent with the interpretation that the economically interesting metals were dominantly introduced by magmatic fluids.     

南京栖霞山铅锌矿成矿流体特征及演化:来自流体包裹体及氢氧同位素约束

南京栖霞山铅锌矿床是华东最大的铅锌矿床,具有悠久的研究和开采历史;近些年来的勘探在深部取得显著进展,显示了很好的勘探潜力。本次研究,在系统全面地野外地质观察和样品采集的基础上,开展了详细的岩相学研究和成矿期次的划分,并进行了流体包裹体和氢氧同位素测试分析。结果显示,栖霞山铅锌矿存在两期铅锌矿化:早期以形成层状和块状矿石为特征,闪锌矿深灰-红棕色;晚期矿化以块状、角砾状和脉状构造为特征,闪锌矿呈棕色-浅黄色。早期闪锌矿中包裹体以富液相包裹体类型为主,均一温度分布范围为182～289℃,盐度为0. 9%～8. 2%NaCleqv,成矿流体与富硫同生沉积层发生化学反应可能是其主要的沉淀机制;晚期闪锌矿中也是以富液相包裹体类型为主,但是温度、盐度有所上升,均一温度集中在197～348℃,盐度介于0. 4%～10. 9%NaCleqv之间,指示有更多岩浆流体混入,流体混合可能是主要的沉淀机制。为了限定其深部可能的热液中心位置,我们利用晚期闪锌矿中的包裹体进行流体空间填图。填图结果显示了良好的空间变化规律:成矿流体温度以西南到北东方向为轴,向西南方向温度上升,暗示了成矿流体可能来源于西南方向深部,因此在其西南方向的深部可能具有更好的勘探潜力。