GRADIENT MEASUREMENTS OF METHANE FLUX IN LIN''''AN RICE PADDIES

From July to September of 1990,CH_4 flux measurements were made in Lin'an rice paddies using gradient profiletechniques.Some characteristics of the turbulence structure under the stable conditions have been verified in the surfacelayer according to the in situ measurements.The semi-empirical turbulent parameters β_m,β_h and β_c and their changeswith the stability parameter Ri are given.Observed results indicate that CH_4 flux in the rice-paddy is mainly decided bythe methnogenesis and the process of CH4 transport from internal soils to the atmosphere,and that the CH_4 verticaltransfer is depressed in the stable surface layer.The CH_4 flux shows that its obvious diurnal changes,and the meanCH_4 flux are higher in nighttime and lower in daytime,and the peaks appear at about 2000 BST at night and 0300 BSTin the early morning,respectively.The mean value of CH_4 flux is about 4.18±2.3 mg/m~2 h.     

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF THE VARIATIONS OF SURFACE OZONE AND NITRIC OXIDES IN LIN’AN

The observational results in Lin;an show the elevated average concentrations of surface ozone and Nitric Oxides(NO_x)in the rural area in the eastern mid-latitudes of China.The mechanism of its variations was explained by the theoretical analysis.In the case of breeze,the photochemical reactions controlled by solar radiation is the determined factors affecting the variations of the surface O₃ and NO_x.A study of the correlation between NO_x and SO₂ demonstrates that the biomass burning is an important local emission source of NO_x.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF METHANE EMISSIONS FROM RICE PADDY FIELDS IN THE YANGTZE DELTA OF CHINA

A numerical simulation model is presented in this paper,which comprises the processes ofcrop growth,soil organic carbon decomposition,and methane emissions in agroecosystems.Simulation results show that the model can simulate the main process of methane emissions well,and the correlation coefficient between the simulated values and observed data is 0.79 with 239samples,which passed a significance test of 0.01.The average error of methane emissionsimulation in whole growth period is about 15%.Numerical analysis of the model indicates that theaverage temperature during rice growth period has much impacts on methane emissions,and thebasic trend of interannual methane emissions is similar to that of average temperature.The amountof methane emissions reduces about 34.93%,when the fertilizer is used instead of manure in singlerice paddy.     

ANALYSIS OF A STRONG MESOSCALE ENERGY FRONT CAUSING AN EXCEPTIONAL RAINSTORM*

Under the outer-region effect of Typhoon Prapiroon (No.0012),an exceptional rainstorm occurred in northeastern Jiangsu Province from 0200 BT (Beijing Time) 30 August to 0800 BT 31 August 2000,which is an event of noticeable locality,abruptness,high intensity,a new record of rainfall measurement in history and very heavy damage caused,leading to the 24 h rainfall of 801.6 mm in County Xiangshui as the center of the rainstorm in the second quadrant of the outer region of the typhoon,i.e.,the northeastern Jiangsu Province,where a meso-β energy frontal zone is available at surface,serving as a weather system for generating and maintaining the exceptional rainstorm.Frontogenesis function used in diagnosing the production and development of the frontal zone displays different effects as follows:the deformation term plays a decisive role,the convergence term makes substantial contribution,but diabatic heating has some effect in the initial stage but less on the maintenance.Numerical study of a two-dimensional mesoscale equation shows that the driving around the frontal zone causes a vortex,whose ascending leg transports upwards warm and moist air from the high-energy area to such a level as to make it into cloud for precipitation and whose descending branch is liable for quick falling of raindrops and drawing cold air down onto surface for temperature drop there,allowing the frontal zone to be maintained and intensified,thus making rainfall intensity increased greatly.Comprehensive research indicates that when such a frontal zone is established the interactions among the convergent line,mesolow, mesohigh and driving-generated disturbance vortex in the neighborhood of the frontal zone are finally for the occurrence of the exceptional rainstorm.     

MAINTAINABLE MECHANISM OF MESO-β SCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEM*

By means of the Penn State-NCAR Mesoscale Model Version 5(MM5)with a horizontal resolution of 20 km.the maintainable mechanism of Meso-β scale Convective System(MβCS)has been investigated on the basis of simulation of the temporal and spatial thermodynamics structure of the MβCS which occurred in Wuhan and its surroundings on 21 July 1998.The occurrence of the significant warm-core in the center of the MβCS happened in Changjiang River Basin between the Mufu Mountain and the Dabie Mountain.To the southern side of the MβCS,there exist the southwest low-level jet(LLJ)and the vertical secondary circulation in the low and middle troposphere respectively.In respect to the northern of the MβCS,the northwest jet emerges in the upper troposphere,accompanied with cold and dry atmosphere downdrafts,resulting in another secondary circulation.The foregoing mentioned vertical wind shear provides a favorable dynamical environment for the intensification and maintenance of the MβCS.Equally important,the latent heat release associated with the MβCS produces the warm center in the middle troposphere and the pressure falls.The pressure drop then accelerates air parcels toward the low leading to strong convergence as well as the intensified convection,establishing a positive feedback between the convection and the latent heat release,which is the thermodynamic mechanism of the development and maintenance of the MβCS.     

CLIMATIC ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS OF THE TROPICAL CONVECTION IN WESTERN PACIFIC ON WESTERN PACIFIC SUBTROPICAL HIGH’S SHORT-TERM SCALES DURING BOREAL SUMMER*

Based on the multi-year average NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data and NOAA's OLR data,the climatic characteristics of the tropical convection in tropical western Pacific and Indian Oceans as well as its relationship with western Pacific subtropical high (WPSH) is shown as follows:on short-term scales,the tropical convection that has significant influence on western Pacific high's latitudinal movement is located in the area of the South China Sea to the Philippines,which is the 2-day precursor prior to WPSH's latitudinal fluctuation,that is,WPSH is shifting to north 2 days after the tropical convection becomes more active,and vice versa.Moreover,the tropical convection has less effect on WPSH's longitudinal movement.     

STUDY OF THE NONLINEAR MECHANISM ABOUT THE FORMATION OF BLOCKING HIGH*

In this paper,a nonlinear dynamical system considering the interactions among ultra-long wave,long wave and zonal flow in a baroelinic atmosphere was found.In this system,thermal forcing and frictional dissipation are regarded as the external parameters.The procedure,in which the maps of orbit in phase space,contour of stream function and section of Poincaré mapping are combined with each other,is used to determine the distributions of system states and circulation patterns and to draw the corresponding diagrams.The results show that by using the Galerkin method,there is no essential influence of the increasing of orders of truncated-spectrum in a certain range on the distributions of system states and circulation patterns,but it makes them somewhat complexities.By contrast,the changing of distribution of thermal forcing exerts a great influence on the system.Blocking high links closely with the oscillating of the atmospheric circulation and the meridional growing intensely,while the development of synoptic wave can promote the oscillating.     

VARIATIONS OF 30—60 DAY OSCILLATION IN ATMOSPHERE BEFORE AND DURING 1982 EL NINO*

By using the upper-wind data from July 1980 to June 1983,the variations of the low-frequency oscillation(LFO) in the atmosphere before and during 1982 El Nino have been investigated.Before the El Nino,the LFO propagates from west to east over the equator of the Eastern Hemisphere and from east to west over 20°N.The eastward propagating LFO over the equator consists of zonal wavenumber 1 propagating eastward and zonal wavenumber 2 with a character of stationary wave.The oscillation of zonal wavenumber 2 can modulate the oscillation strength.After the onset of the El Nino,the propagating directions of the LFO over the equator and 20°N of the Eastern Hemisphere change to be westward and eastward,respectively.The LFO over the western Pacific weakens rapidly and one coming from middle and high latitudes propagates to the equator.From the phase compositions of streamline fields for the zonal wavenumber 1 of equatorial westward propagatirg LFO,it is found that the atmospheric heat source in the equator of the eastern Pacific(EEP)excites a series of the equatorial cyclones and anticyclones which move northward and westward and form the westward propagating LFO over the equator.With the wavelength of 20000km,this kind of equatorial wave is similar to the mixing Rossby-gravity wave.In its westward and northward movement,the circulation in East Asia is modified.This may be the mechanism of the influence of El Nino on the climate of China.     

MODIFIED MASS FLUX CUMULUS CONVECTIVE PARAMETERIZATION SCHEME AND ITS SIMULATION EXPERIMENT—PART Ⅰ:MASS FLUX SCHEME AND ITS SIMULATION OF THE 1991 FLOOD EVENT*

Based on the existing cumulus convective parameterization schemes,a mass flux scheme (MFS) for cumulus convective parameterization has been successfully developed by reference to the work of Chen et al. (1996).The MFS is a comprehensive scheme.In MFS,not only the importance of the large-scale moisture convergence is taken into account,but also it includes the cumulus updrafts and downdrafts,cumulus-induced subsidence in the environmental air.entrainment,detrainment and evaporation.The interaction between the cumulus and the environment is described by using a one-dimensional bulk model.At the same time the scheme includes the penetrative and shallow convections.The MFS has been successfully incorporated into the regional climate model RegCM2 developed by NCAR.The new model has been applied to simulate summer monsoon characteristics and their variations of heavy rainfall process in the Changjiang-Huaihe River Basins for three months from May to July 1991.The results show that the new model can successfully simulate this rainfall prolonged process.By comparising the model outputs of RegCM2.using the Kuo scheme and the MFS.it is found that the MFS is better in simulating the surface temperature,rainfall position and amount,and rainfall duration.     

NUMERICAL STUDY OF A MESO-β SCALE RAINSTORM EVENT*

Diagnosis is performed of a thunderstorm rainstorm event occurring in the summer of 1996 at Nanjing and numerical simulation undertaken in the context of hydrostatic equilibrium framework of MM5 as the fifth version of the PSU/NCAR mesoscale model. Analyses show that the rainstorm-associated thermal condition was the accumulation of unstable potential energy and the dynamic condition was vigorous convergence updrafts. And the simulation within the hydrostatic framework indicates the significant role of latent heat release in the rainstorm occurrence: that even for a 30 km grid spacing horizontally of great importance to the successful modeling of the meso-p event was a convection parameterization scheme that led to less rainfall in our run based only on its explicit version but to the prediction in closer agreement with the observed when its implicit version was used in combination: for the thunderstorm-accompanied torrential rain. the Grell scheme was superior to the version of Kuo and the improved Arakawa-Schubert parameterization scheme (Grell 1993:Anthese and Kuo 1987; Arakawa and Scherbt 1974: Grell et al. 1991).Moreover, better results came from the simulation in the context of hydrostatic framework of the MM5 compared to those from the run within the nonhydrostatic equilibrium framework, a problem that awaits further efforts.     

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF EXTREMELY HEAVY RAIN AND MESO-β SCALE LOW VORTEX IN INVERTED TYPHOON TROUGH*

Large-scale and mesoscale analyses are made for extremely heavy rain(EHR) and meso-β scale low vortex(MSLV) in Jiading District of Shanghai Municipality during 6-7 July 2001.It is shown that the EHR forms in the situation of northern westerly trough linking together with southern inverted typhoon trough at northwest side of the West Pacific Ocean subtropical high. Numerical simulation is made using a 21-layer improved REM(regional η coordinate model) for this course.The results show that the precipitation forms earlier than MSLV.and the strong convergence in wind velocity mate(WVM) triggers the strong precipitation.The formative reasons of WVM.especially the weak wind velocity center are discussed,and the formative mechanisms of the MSLV and EHR are discussed using high spatial and temporal resolution modeloutput physical fields.The results show that the heavy rain releases latent heat and warms the air column,and enhances the low level positive vorticity that existed before.Then it causes the formation of MSLV.There is a positive feedback mechanism between low vortex and precipitation,so CISK must be an important mechanism.     

ROLE IN MOISTURE TRANSPORTATION OF SEASONAL MEAN AND INTRASEASONAL OSCILLATIONS IN ASIAN SUMMER MONSOON AREA——LONG-TERM AVERAGE CHARACTERISTICS*

By use of the May-September 1980-1986 ECMWF daily data of u,v,r and T at 850 hPa,a comparative analysis is performed of basic features of moisture transportation at seasonal mean,quasi-40-day,-biweekly,and-weekly oscillations,indicating that the seasonal mean transfer plays a decisive role in the moisture flux over the Asian monsoon region,displaying the integer of the monsoon systems there in character;that the transport related to these tropical intraseasonal oscillations are of equal importance in the monsoon period except the difference in their behaviors,i.e.,the transfer shows considerable relative independence in the South-and East-Asian systems;and that the transport at all these intraseasonal oscillations is found to be feeble at equatorial latitudes with little or no influence on each other for both hemispheres.     

OBSERVATIONAL STUDY OF AIR-SEA FLUXES DURING THE SCS SUMMER MONSOON IN 2000——FEATURES OF THERMAL BUDGET AT THE SEA SURFACE*

This paper is devoted to the features of sea-surface heat budget during the active/break phases of the 2000 summer monsoon in the South-China Sea(SCS) by means of the observed air-sea heat fluxes and data from Xisha Weather Station and NCEP/NCAR in the same period.Results suggest that the primary factors affecting sea-surface thermal budget are solar shortwave penetrating radiation and latent heat flux.Regardless of their changes,however,the thermal gain is reduced or becomes net loss at the active stage and the thermal gain gets gradually increased in the weakening and lull periods:during the first emergence of southwest monsoon the net loss happens thanks to the dramatic diminution of penetrating radiation resulting from increased cloudiness and intense precipitation:while at the re-emergence of the wind.reduced net sea-surface thermal gain is attributed to the sharp increase in latent heat flux resulting from intense evaporation:owing to great thermal inertia of water the SST change lags behind that of heat budget over the sea surface, and the lagging is responsible for regulating the budget by affecting latent heat fluxes,which,in turn.has effect upon the change of the SST,thereby forming short-term oscillations that are in association with the active/break phases of the monsoons.Part of the conclusions have been borne out by the observational study based on 1998 and 2002 data.     

MODIFIED MASS FLUX CUMULUS CONVECTIVE PARAMETERIZATION SCHEME AND ITS SIMULATION EXPERIMENT—PARTⅡ:CUMULUS CONVECTION ACTIVITIES SIMULATED FROM THREE SCHEMES AND SENSITIVITY EXPERIMENTS BY USE OF MASS FLUX SCHEME*

By comparison of simulated cumulus convection processes in RegCM2,using the Kuo scheme,the Grell scheme and the mass flux scheme (MFS),it is found that the MFS can simulate the cumulus heating and moistening very well.A series of sensitivity tests show that the parameters for specifying the conversion coefficient from cloud droplets to raindrops,the turbulent entrainment and detrainment rates in updrafts anddowndrafts,and the intensity of the downdrafts have different degrees of influence upon the cumulus convection.Therefore.it is quite important for cumulus parameterization scheme to define these parameters as accurately as possible.     

DEVELOPMENT OF THE 2-D COUPLED STRATOSPHERIC-TROPOSPHERIC DYNAMICAL-RADIATIVE-CHEMICAL MODEL-PART Ⅲ:BUDGET OF TROPOSPHERIC OZONE*

On the basis of original 2-D coupled model,36 species and 83 reactions about NMHCs are added.By using this model,the budgets of ozone,carbon monoxide and methane in the troposphere are analyzed.The results show that the amount of ozone transported from the stratosphere to the troposphere is about 1340 Tg/a,its producing rate in troposphere is about 1190 Tg/a and the amount of ozone cleared by the dry deposition in troposphere is 1700Tg/a.In troposphere,the ozone is mainly produced at lower level in middle latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere and at upper levels in tropics.     

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON EFFECTS OF HUMIDITY AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION UPON IMAGINARY PART OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF AEROSOL PARTICLES*

Experimental study is made of the relationship between the imaginary part of refractive index (IRI) of atmospheric aerosol particles and relative humidity,and between IRI and chemical element through the assay of chemical constituents of the particles.Evidence suggests that atmospheric humidity and aerosols' chemical ingredients have great effects on the IRI's and they should thus be considered in the research of the radiation properties of the particles in the atmosphere.     

NUMERICAL MODELING OF CUMULUS CLOUD CHEMISTRY—PART Ⅰ.MODEL DEVELOPMENT*

A one-dimensional cumulus cloud chemistry model(ICCCM) is developed to simulate cloud physical processes and chemical processes during the evolution of a convective cloud.The cloud physical submodel includes a detailed microphysical parameterized scheme of 20 processes.The chemistry submodel is composed of three parts:gas phase chemistry,aqueous phase chemistry and scavenging of soluble gases.The gas phase reaction mechanism contains 85 reactions among 45 species including 13 organics.The aqueous phase reaction mechanism contains 54 reactions among 40 species and 12 ion equilibria.Mass of 19 gases is transported between the gas phase and the aqueous phase.With this model,studies may be made to analyze the interactions among processes during lifetime of a cumulus cloud.     

A MESO-β SCALE SIMULATION OF THE EFFECTS OF BOREAL FOREST ECOSYSTEM ON THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE*

Based on the Intensive Field Campaign(IFC-1)data of Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS),a three-dimensional meso-β scale model is used to simulate the effect of boreal forests on the lower atmosphere.A fine horizontal resolution of 2 km×2 km is used in order to distinguish the vegetative heterogeneity in the boreal region.A total of 20×25 grid points cover the entire sub-modeling area in BOREAS' South Study Area(SSA).The ecosystem types and their coverage in each grid square are extracted from the North American Land Cover Characteristics Data Base (NALCCD) generated by the U.S.Geographical Survey (USGS) and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln(UNL).The topography of the study area is taken from the Digital Elevation Map(DEM)of USGS.The model outputs include the components of the energy balance budget within the canopy and at the ground,the turbulence parameters in the atmospheric boundary layer and the wind,temperature and humidity profiles extending up to a height of 1500 m.In addition to the fine time and spatial step,the unique feature of the present model is the incorporation of both dynamic and biological effects of the Boreal forest into the model parameterization scheme.The model resultscompare favorably with BOREAS' IFC-1 data in 1994 when the forest was in the luxuriant growing period.     

VARIATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC OSCILLATION FACTORS AND 500 HPA CIRCULATION PATTERNS AND THEIR RELATIONS*

Wavelet analysis,EOF and CCA are used to analyze the variations of atmospheric circulation factors,including the key atmospheric oscillations,W,C,E and subtropical high (SH),and their relationships.The results are shown that the variations of atmospheric circulation factors both in troposphere and lower atmosphere layer are different on different time scales.The most significant variation of atmospheric circulation factors is in the period less than 7 years.The correlation relations of atmospheric circulation factors are different on different time scales.Combination patterns of circulation factors have impact on the relationships of factors.There are lag correlations between combination patterns of circulation factors in former year and that of in next year.     

NUMERICAL MODELING OF CUMULUS CLOUD CHEMISTRY-PART Ⅱ:THE IMPACT OF CUMULUS CLOUD PROCESSES ON OZONE CHEMISTRY*

Ozone chemistry processes are analyzed during a cumulus cloud process with the model（lCCCM）described in Part Ⅰ.The simulation results show that entire cumulus cloud process can be well described with the development of vertical velocities and liquid water content which are the two most outstanding features of cumulus clouds.Ozone chemistry is strongly influenced by cumulus clouds.NO_x can be transported upwards above 4 km in the first 20 minutes of the convection event and form a relative higher concentration area which enhances the production of ozone.Two areas appear during the convection event:area of net ozone production and area of net ozone depletion.The area of ozone depletion coincides with the area of liquid water within cloud.Results show that the aqueous phase（cloud water and rainwater）can alter gas ozone level through two ways:one is scavenging free radicals（HO₂）from the gas phase and thereby inhibiting the reactions of transformation to NO₂ from NO,which results in reduction of the gas source of ozone;the other is aqueous phase chemical reactions which consume ozone in the aqueous phase.Calculations reveal that the reaction O₃+OH→HO₂ is the main pathway of ozone depletion in gas phase during the process of cumulus clouds.