Cluster spacing optimization of multi-stage fracturing in horizontal shale gas wells based on stimulated reservoir volume evaluation

The multi-stage fracturing in horizontal well is a common technique for shale gas reservoir exploitation, in which cluster spacing governs the fracturing performance. Undersized cluster spacing might make the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV), activated by the respective hydraulic fracture, excessively overlap with each other, while oversized cluster spacing might leave a large unstimulated volume between neighboring hydraulic fractures; in either case, fracturing would be inefficient. Previous design of cluster spacing has failed to maximize the SRV due to the absence of a dynamic SRV evaluation model. A numerical model of SRV evaluation in shale reservoir was established by integrating four main modules, including fracture propagation, reservoir pressure distribution, formation stress distribution, and natural fracture failure criterion. Then, a method to optimize cluster spacing was developed with the goal of maximizing SRV. In order to validate this method, it was applied in Fuling shale gas reservoir in Southwest China to determine the optimal cluster spacing. The sensitivity of key parameters on the optimal cluster spacing has been analyzed. This research proposed a compelling cluster spacing optimization method, which could reduce the uncertainty in cluster spacing design, and provides some new insights on the optimal design of multi-stage fracturing in horizontal shale gas well.     

页岩储层体积压裂裂缝扩展机制研究

页岩储层天然裂缝、水平层理发育,水力压裂过程中可能形成复杂的体积裂缝。针对页岩储层体积裂缝扩展问题,基于流-固耦合基本方程和损伤力学原理,建立了页岩储层水力压裂体积裂缝扩展的三维有限元模型。将数值模型的模拟结果与页岩储层裂缝扩展室内试验结果进行对比,二者吻合较好,从而证明了数值模型的可靠性。通过一系列数值模拟发现：（1）水力压裂过程中水平层理可能张开,形成水平缝,水平与垂直缝相互交错,形成复杂的体积裂缝网络;（2）水平主应力差增大,体积裂缝的分布长度（水平最大主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）增加、分布宽度（水平最小主应力方向压裂裂缝的展布距离）减小,体积裂缝的长宽比增加;（3）压裂施工排量增大,体积裂缝的分布长度减小、宽度增加,压裂裂缝的长宽比降低;（4）天然裂缝的残余抗张强度增大,体积裂缝分布宽度减小、分布长度增加,体积裂缝的长宽比增加。研究成果可以为国内的页岩气的压裂设计和施工提供一定的参考和借鉴。     

Study on Effects of Low Viscosity Fluid Pre-injection on Hydraulic Fracture Complexity in Tight Heterogeneous Glutenite Reservoirs

Tight heterogeneous glutenite reservoir is typically not easy to form complex hydraulic fracture (HF) due to its poor physical properties, poor matrix seepage capacity, and small limit discharge radius and undeveloped natural fracture system. To improve the HF complexity and the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV), a novel stimulation technology called CO₂ miscible fracturing has been introduced and its fracturing mechanism has been studied. The CO₂ miscible fracturing modifies the in situ stress field by injecting low viscosity fluid to increase the HF complexity and SRV. Therefore, a series of numerical simulations based on a hydro-mechanical-damage model were carried out to study the effects of low viscosity fluid pre-injection on pore pressure, stress field, and fracturing effect in tight heterogeneous glutenite reservoirs. The results indicate that the low viscosity fluid injection can effectively increase the pore pressure around the wellbore and reduce the effective stress of the glutenite. The FCI and SRV increase with the increase of the pre-injection amount of the low viscosity fluid. The HF complexity and SRV can be improved by pre-injecting low viscosity fluid to transform the in situ stress field. The field application of this technology in a well of Shengli Oilfield showed that low-viscosity fluid pre-injection can effectively increase the width of the fractured zone, improve the SRV, and optimize the fracturing effect.

     

基于扩展有限元法的碳酸盐岩地热储层岩体裂缝扩展行为

水力压裂作为一种主要的地热能开采手段,其压裂效果除与岩体基本物理力学性质有关外,还与裂隙分布、地应力状态、压裂工程参数等密切相关.为了探究以上因素对水力压裂过程中裂缝扩展行为的影响,以冀中坳陷碳酸盐岩储层岩体为研究对象,基于扩展有限元法,建立裂缝扩展流固耦合模型,分析了水平应力差、射孔方位角、注入液排量和压裂液黏度等参数对裂缝扩展行为的影响.结果表明:单裂缝扩展时,射孔方位角越小、注入量越大、越有利于裂缝扩展;双裂缝扩展时,水平应力差增大,裂缝偏转程度变小;水力裂缝与天然裂缝相交时,较小水平应力差有利于天然裂缝开启.      

Semianalytical modeling on 3D stress redistribution during hydraulic fracturing stimulation and its effects on natural fracture reactivation

The hydraulic fracturing technique has been widely applied in many fields, such as the enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), the improvement of injection rates for geologic sequestration of CO₂, and for the stimulations of oil and gas reservoirs. The key points for the success of hydraulic fracturing operations in unconventional resources are to accurately estimate the redistribution of pore pressure and stresses around the induced fracture and predict the reactivations of preexisting natural fractures. The pore pressure and stress regime around hydraulic fracture are affected by poroelastic and thermoelastic phenomena as well as by fracture opening compression. In this work, a comprehensive semi-analytical model is used to estimate the stress and pore pressure distribution around an injection-induced fracture from a single well in an infinite reservoir. The model allows the leak-off distribution in the formation to be three-dimensional with the pressure transient moving ellipsoidically outward into the reservoir from the fracture surface. The pore pressure and the stress changes in three dimensions at any point around the fracture caused by poroelasticity, thermoelasticity, and fracture compression are investigated. With Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, we calculate the natural fracture reactivations in the reservoir. Then, two case studies of constant water injection into a hydraulic fracture are presented. This work is of interest in the interpretation of microseismicity in hydraulic fracturing and in the estimation of the fracture spacing for hydraulic fracturing operations. In addition, the results from this study can be very helpful for the selection of stimulated wells and further design of the refracturing operations.     

微地震技术评价中牟区块体积压裂的效果

微地震监测技术是页岩气开采过程中对页岩气储层压裂效果评价和指导压裂过程的重要手段,可通过观察、分析压裂过程中诱发微地震事件,获取压裂裂缝参数、导流能力、裂缝展布发育方向等信息。中牟区块牟页1井具有低孔、低渗储层特征,对含气层段的三层储层,采用大排量水力压裂施工,进行地面微地震监测、井中微破裂成像技术压裂监测及微地震监测;牟页1井监测压裂结果显示为缝长251～496m,缝宽120～252m,改造体积约为237.5×104～387.7×104 m3,方位角64°～80°。压裂实施使储层裂缝开启含气层段得到改造,指导了实时压裂和压裂效果评价。     

Optimization and Evaluation of Multiple Hydraulically Fractured Parameters in Random Naturally Fractured Model Blocks: An Experimental Investigation

Researchers have recently realized that the non-tectonic natural fractures are developed in shale formations and significant for the exploitation of shale gas. Studies have shown that the tectonic fractures in naturally fractured reservoirs have influences on the maximization of stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) during hydraulic fracturing. However, the effect of the non-tectonic randomly natural fractures on the fracturing network propagation is not well understood. Laboratory experiments are proposed to study the evolution of fracturing network in naturally fractured formations with specimens that contain non-tectonic random fractures. The influences of the dominating factors were studied and analyzed, with an emphasis on natural fracture density, stress ratio, and injection rate. The response surface methodology was employed to perform the multiple-factor analysis and optimization in the maximization of the SRV. A sensitivity study reveals a number of interesting observations resulting from these parameters on the fracturing network evaluation. It is suggested from the geometry morphology of fracturing network that high natural fracture density and injection rate tend to maximize the fracturing network. The influence of stress contrast on fracturing network is nonlinear; an optimal value exists resulting in the best hydraulic fracturing effectiveness.     

含有硬包裹体分布的非均质岩石水力压裂特性研究

基于完全流-固耦合的弹塑性理论给出了水力压裂数值计算的弥散裂缝模型,其中材料的弹性部分采用线弹性本构关系,塑性部分采用摩尔-库仑破坏准则及强化准则。依据当前的有效应力状态修正渗透系数来模拟压裂液在裂缝中的流动。渗透系数的修改使用双曲正切函数,并采用平均有效应力作为水力裂缝的起裂判据。在ABAQUS软件中通过用户自定义程序添加了该模型。根据岩石的切面照片建立了含有硬包裹体分布的非均质岩石的有限元计算模型,模拟了中心点注水条件下的水力压裂传播过程,讨论了在常应力状态下非均质岩石中开裂区域、典型位置的应力路径变化和裂缝传播范围随时间变化的特点。进行了多种条件下含有硬包裹体分布的岩石材料的数值试验,得出了基岩材料的弹性模量、凝聚力和渗透系数以及注水速率对峰值注水压力、平均注水压力和裂缝开度的影响规律。     

Coupled Numerical Evaluations of the Geomechanical Interactions Between a Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation and a Natural Fracture System in Shale Formations

Due to the low permeability of many shale reservoirs, multi-stage hydraulic fracturing in horizontal wells is used to increase the productive, stimulated reservoir volume. However, each created hydraulic fracture alters the stress field around it, and subsequent fractures are affected by the stress field from previous fractures. The results of a numerical evaluation of the effect of stress field changes (stress shadowing), as a function of natural fracture and geomechanical properties, are presented, including a detailed evaluation of natural fracture shear failure (and, by analogy, the generated microseismicity) due to a created hydraulic fracture. The numerical simulations were performed using continuum and discrete element modeling approaches in both mechanical-only and fully coupled, hydro-mechanical modes. The results show the critical impacts that the stress field changes from a created hydraulic fracture have on the shear of the natural fracture system, which in-turn, significantly affects the success of the hydraulic fracture stimulation. Furthermore, the results provide important insight into: the role of completion design (stage spacing) and operational parameters (rate, viscosity, etc.) on the possibility of enhancing the stimulation of the natural fracture network (‘complexity’); the mechanisms that generate the microseismicity that occurs during a hydraulic fracture stimulation; and the interpretation of the generated microseismicity in relation to the volume of stimulated reservoir formation.     

鄂尔多斯盆地北部塔巴庙地区上古生界致密砂岩气藏天然裂缝形成机理浅析

鄂尔多斯盆地北部塔巴庙地区上古生界致密砂岩气藏的低孔、低压、低渗特点给开发带来了相当大的难度.天然裂缝的存在对致密砂岩气藏经济开发意义重大,致密砂岩中裂缝发育层段往往是天然气富集区,天然裂缝能大大改善致密砂岩储层渗透性,研究其发育状况及分布规律对储层压裂改造及水平井开发技术的实施具有积极的指导意义.塔巴庙地区位于鄂尔多斯盆地北部伊陕斜坡构造带上,构造平缓,地层倾角仅1°左右,一般认为不具备裂缝发育条件,然而大量岩心观察、薄片分析、物性测试、测井及试井资料证实,研究区的确不同程度地发育垂直裂缝和高角度裂缝.对裂缝的形态、产状、密度及裂缝分布范围研究后认为,天然裂缝主要是在区域应力、差异压实和异常高流体压力综合作用下形成的,断裂作用不是该区裂缝发育的主导因素.      

页岩水平井多段分簇压裂起裂压力数值模拟

页岩储层孔隙度和渗透率极低,天然裂缝和水平层理发育,常规压裂增产措施无法满足页岩气的开发要求,水平井多段分簇压裂是页岩气开发的关键技术之一,该技术能够大幅度提升压裂改造的体积、产气量和最终采收率。为确定页岩储层水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力,采用有限元方法建立了水平井套管完井（考虑水泥环和套管的存在）多段分簇射孔的全三维起裂模型。数值模型的起裂压力与室内试验结果吻合较好,证明了数值模型的准确性和可靠性。利用数值模型研究了页岩水平井多段分簇射孔压裂的起裂点和起裂压力的影响因素,研究发现：射孔孔眼附近无天然裂缝或水平层理影响,起裂点发生在射孔簇孔眼的根部;射孔簇间距越小,中间射孔簇的干扰越大,可能造成中间的射孔簇无法起裂;射孔密度和孔眼长度增大,起裂压力降低;天然裂缝的存在,在某些情况能够降低起裂压力且改变起裂位置,主要与天然裂缝的分布方位及水平主应力差有关;水平层理可能会降低起裂压力,但与垂向主应力与水平最小主应力的差值有关。获得的起裂压力变化规律,可作为进一步研究水平井多段分簇射孔条件下的裂缝扩展规律的基础,可以为压裂设计和施工的射孔参数确定及优化给出具体建议。     

离散裂隙网络对页岩气井产能影响的数值模拟

页岩作为典型的非常规储层,基质孔隙小,渗透率极低,水平井多级水力压裂为其商业开发的主要手段。准确模拟页岩气产能,应同时考虑水力裂隙和天然裂隙的渗流。基于离散裂隙模型和等效连续模型建立页岩气渗流数学模型,利用有限元分析方法进行数值求解,研究不同走向裂隙组对页岩气井产能的影响。研究认为,页岩基质为气体的生产提供了主要气源,天然裂隙作为渗流的主要通道,将气体输送到水力裂缝,进而到达井筒。模拟结果表征,离散裂隙的渗流特征对于页岩气井的产能有重要影响。根据页岩储层的天然裂隙走向,可以优化相应的水平井方位。对于二维离散裂隙网络模型,水平井沿着2个裂隙组夹角的平分线更有利于生产。      

页岩水平井体积压裂设计的一种新方法

页岩水平井常采用体积压裂技术获得产能,压裂形成的缝网体积、渗透率是影响压裂效果的关键因素。目前页岩体积压裂设计借用产能预测模型优化缝网参数,此模型较复杂,不便于现场应用。根据等效渗流原理,将页岩储层压裂后形成的缝网系统等效为一个高渗透带,建立了体积压裂缝网参数与施工规模关系模型,提出了体积压裂设计的3个步骤:体积压裂可行性研究、数值模拟优化缝网参数和施工参数优化。根据QY2页岩油水平井特征,进行了体积压裂设计和现场实施。结果表明:压裂形成的高渗透带对产能的贡献最大;高渗透带数量、体积和渗透率增加,压裂后的累积产量和采出程度逐渐增加,存在最优的高渗透带参数。现场应用表明这种设计方法方便实用,可以推广。     

A shear‐dilation‐based model for evaluation of hydraulically stimulated naturally fractured reservoirs

The role of shear dilation as a mechanism of enhancing fluid flow permeability in naturally fractured reservoirs was mainly recognized in the context of hot dry rock (HDR) geothermal reservoir stimulation. Simplified models based on shear slippage only were developed and their applications to evaluate HDR geothermal reservoir stimulation were reported. Research attention is recently focused to adjust this stimulation mechanism for naturally fractured oil and gas reservoirs which reserve vast resources worldwide. This paper develops the overall framework and basic formulations of this stimulation model for oil and gas reservoirs. Major computational modules include: natural fracture simulation, response analysis of stimulated fractures, average permeability estimation for the stimulated reservoir and prediction of an average flow direction. Natural fractures are simulated stochastically by implementing ‘fractal dimension’ concept. Natural fracture propagation and shear displacements are formulated by following computationally efficient approximate approaches interrelating in situ stresses, natural fracture parameters and stimulation pressure developed by fluid injection inside fractures. The average permeability of the stimulated reservoir is formulated as a function of discretized gridblock permeabilities by applying cubic law of fluid flow. The average reservoir elongation, or the flow direction, is expressed as a function of reservoir aspect ratio induced by directional permeability contributions. The natural fracture simulation module is verified by comparing its results with observed microseismic clouds in actual naturally fractured reservoirs. Permeability enhancement and reservoir growth are characterized with respect to stimulation pressure, in situ stresses and natural fracture density applying the model to two example reservoirs. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of refracturing in horizontal wells: Insights from the poroelastic displacement discontinuity method

In this paper, a fully coupled 2‐dimensional poroelastic displacement discontinuity method is used to investigate the refracturing process in horizontal wells. One of the objectives of refracturing is to access new reserves by adding new hydraulic fractures in zones that were bypassed in the initial fracturing attempt. Pore pressure depletion in the vicinity of old fractures directly affects the state of stress and eventually the propagation of newly created hydraulic fractures. Thus, a poroelastic analysis is required to identify guidelines for the refracturing process, in particular to understand the extension of the pore pressure depletion, and eventually, the orientation of new as well as old fractures. We propose a fully coupled approach to model the whole process of child fracture propagation in a depleted area between 2 parent fractures in the same wellbore. This approach omits the need of using multistep workflow that is regularly used to model the process. The maximum tensile stress criterion (σ criterion) is used for hydraulic fracture propagation. The proposed method is verified using available analytical solutions for total stress and pore pressure loading modes on a line fracture in drained and undrained conditions. Then, test cases of multifractured horizontal wells are studied to calculate the time evolution of the stress and pore pressure fields around old fractures and to understand the effect of these fields on the propagation path of newly created fractures. Finally, the effect of the pore pressure depletion on the propagation path of the newly created fractures in the bypassed area of the same wellbore is studied. The results show that the depleted areas around old fractures are highly affected by the extent and severity of the stress redistribution and pore pressure depletion. It is observed that a successful creation of new fractures may only happen in certain time frames. The results of this study provide new insights on the behavior of newly created fractures in depleted zones. They also clarify the relationship between stress change and pore pressure depletion in horizontal wells.     

Numerical Modeling of Pore Pressure Influence on Fracture Evolution in Brittle Heterogeneous Rocks

Rock is a heterogeneous geological material. When rock is subjected to internal hydraulic pressure and external mechanical loading, the fluid flow properties will be altered by closing, opening, or other interaction of pre-existing weaknesses or by induced new fractures. Meanwhile, the pore pressure can influence the fracture behavior on both a local and global scale. A finite element model that can consider the coupled effects of seepage, damage and stress field in heterogeneous rock is described. First, two series of numerical tests in relatively homogeneous and heterogeneous rocks were performed to investigate the influence of pore pressure magnitude and gradient on initiation and propagation of tensile fractures. Second, to examine the initiation of hydraulic fractures and their subsequent propagation, a series of numerical simulations of the behavior of two injection holes inside a saturated rock mass are carried out. The rock is subjected to different initial in situ stress ratios and to an internal injection (pore) pressure at the two injection holes. Numerically, simulated results indicate that tensile fracture is strongly influenced by both pore pressure magnitude and pore pressure gradient. In addition, the heterogeneity of rock, the initial in situ stress ratio (K), the distance between two injection holes, and the difference of the pore pressure in the two injection holes all play important roles in the initiation and propagation of hydraulic fractures. At relatively close spacing and when the two principal stresses are of similar magnitude, the proximity of adjacent injection holes can cause fracturing to occur in a direction perpendicular to the maximum principal stress.     

An extended finite volume method and fixed-stress approach for modeling fluid injection–induced tensile opening in fractured reservoirs

Fluid injection–induced tensile opening is modeled using an extended finite volume method (XFVM). An embedded fracture strategy is used for the flow problem, that is, the fractures are discretized using finite volume segments without resolving the grid around them. Further, the discontinuities across fractures are modeled using special basis functions. The fracture openings due to enhanced fluid pressure and the associated shear slip due to traction free boundary condition on the fracture segments are both modeled using these special discontinuity basis functions. Mass transfer between fractures and matrix is modeled using the pressure difference. The enhancement of fracture storativity due to tensile opening leads to stronger coupling between flow and mechanics. An iterative scheme relying on the fixed-stress approach for fractures, which conserves the stress dependent terms over each iteration of the flow problem, has been introduced. Tensile opening has been simulated for single fractures embedded in two- and three-dimensional matrices. The convergence criterion for sequentially implicit fixed-stress scheme for fractures embedded in elastic media is established and has been validated numerically. Further, for 2D simulations, the effect of the matrix permeability for fracture propagation due to tensile opening has been studied.     

基于ABAQUS平台的水力裂缝扩展有限元模拟研究

随着扩展有限元理论的深入研究,利用扩展有限元方法模拟水力压裂具有了一定的可操作性。相比于常规有限元方法,XFEM方法具有计算结果精度高和计算量小的优点。但是,如何模拟射孔孔眼、如何模拟流体与岩石相互作用以及分析水力裂缝的扩展规律仍然是难题。以研究水力压裂裂缝扩展规律为目的,建立了岩石多孔介质应力平衡方程、流体渗流连续性方程和边界条件。通过有限元离散化方法对耦合方程矩阵进行处理。通过富集函数定义初始裂缝（射孔孔眼）,选择最大主应力及损伤变量D分别作为裂缝起裂和扩展判定准则,利用水平集方法模拟水力裂缝扩展过程。数值模拟结果显示：增加射孔方位角、压裂液排量和减小水平地应力差,起裂压力上升;黏度对起裂压力无明显影响。增加射孔方位角、压裂液排量、黏度和减小水平地应力差值有助于裂缝宽度的增加。增加水平地应力差值、压裂液排量和减小射孔方位角以及压裂液黏度有助于裂缝长度增加,反之亦然。基于ABAQUS的水力裂缝扩展有限元法可对不同井型和诸多储层物性参数及压裂施工参数进行分析,且裂缝形态逼真,裂缝面凹凸程度清晰,结果准确。此研究可作为一种简便有效研究水力压裂裂缝扩展规律的方法为油田水力压裂设计与施工提供参考与依据。     

川南深层页岩水力压裂缝网扩展规律数值模拟研究

3500 m以深页岩气资源量占整个川南地区总资源量的比例高达86.5%,该区深层页岩气藏构造复杂,压裂形成复杂缝网的难度大,有必要通过数值模拟研究深层页岩气复杂缝网主控因素,对实现川南地区深层页岩气的效益开发具有重要意义。在对川南地区页岩气气田某井的岩芯进行细观尺度下的观察并构建二维裂缝模型的基础上,利用位移间断边界元法(DDM)模拟深层页岩水力压裂过程中水力裂缝与天然裂缝相互作用的物理力学过程,研究主应力、应力差和压裂液排量对裂缝扩展的影响。结果表明：在高应力差条件下缝网的复杂程度和总长度急剧降低,缝网的平均宽度增大,且平均宽度随排量增加而增大的能力变得有限。在高应力差条件下提升压裂液排量,缝网长度的增加以产生新生裂缝为主,同时提升排量对于激活天然裂缝有一定的提升作用,但是效果有限。相比于拉张裂缝,剪切裂缝的形成受主应力和压裂液排量的影响更显著,在高应力差条件下缝网中剪切裂缝的长度急剧降低。随着压裂液的注入,在较低应力差和相同压裂液注入量的情况下,低排量工况下的裂缝长度逐渐大于高排量工况下的裂缝长度。在应力差较高的情况下裂缝扩展的速率较低,同时会使提升排量而形成更多新生裂缝的能力变得...     

Thermal effects on fluid flow and hydraulic fracturing from wellbores and cavities in low-permeability formations

The coupled heat-fluid-stress problem of circular wellbore or spherical cavity subjected to a constant temperature change and a constant fluid flow rate is considered. Transient analytical solutions for temperature, pore pressure and stress are developed by coupling conductive heat transfer with Darcy fluid flow in a poroelastic medium. They are applicable to low permeability porous media suitable for liquid-waste disposal and also simulating reservoir for enhanced oil recovery, where conduction dominates the heat transfer process. A full range of solutions is presented showing separately the effects of temperature and fluid flow on pore pressure and stress development. It is shown that injection of warm fluid can be used to restrict fracture development around wellbores and cavities and generally to optimize a fluid injection operation. Both the limitations of the solutions and the convective flow effect are addressed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.