Scaling of the Vertical Spreading of a Plume of a Passive Tracer in a Rough-Wall Neutral Boundary Layer

The influence of surface roughness on the dispersion of a passive scalar in a rough wall turbulent boundary layer has been studied using wind-tunnel experiments. The surface roughness was varied using different sizes of roughness elements, and different spacings between the elements. Vertical profiles of average concentration were measured at different distances downwind of the source, and the vertical spread of the plume was computed by fitting a double Gaussian profile to the data. An estimate of the integral length scale is derived from the turbulence characteristics of the boundary layer and is then used to scale the measured values of plume spread. This scaling reduces the variability in the data, confirming the validity of the model for the Lagrangian integral time scale, but does not remove it entirely. The scaled plume spreading shows significant differences from predictions of theoretical models both in the near and in the far field. In the region immediately downwind of the source this is due to the influence of the wake of the injector for which we have developed a simple model. In the far field we explain that the differences are mainly due to the absence of large-scale motions. Finally, further downwind of the source the scaled values of plume spread fall into two distinct groups. It is suggested that the difference between the two groups may be related to the lack of dynamical similarity between the boundary-layer flows for varying surface roughness or to biased estimates of the plume spread.     

Continental vegetation as a dynamic component of a global climate model: a preliminary assessment

A simplified vegetation distribution prediction scheme is used in combination with the Biosphere-Atmosphere Transfer Scheme (BATS) and coupled to a version of the NCAR Community Climate Model (CCM1) which includes a mixed-layer ocean. Employed in an off-line mode as a diagnostic tool, the scheme predicts a slightly darker and slightly rougher continental surface than when BATS' prescribed vegetation classes are used. The impact of tropical deforestation on regional climates, and hence on diagnosed vegetation, differs between South America and S.E. Asia. In the Amazon, the climatic effects of removing all the tropical forest are so marked that in only one of the 18 deforested grid elements could the new climate sustain tropical forest vegetation whereas in S.E. Asia in seven of the 9 deforested elements the climate could continue to support tropical forest. Following these off-line tests, the simple vegetation scheme has been coupled to the GCM as an interactive (or two-way) submodel for a test integration lasting 5.6 yr. It is found to be a stable component of the global climate system, producing only ~ 3% (absolute) interannual changes in the predicted percentages of continental vegetation, together with globally-averaged continental temperature increases of up to + 1.5 °C and evaporation increases of 0 to 5 W m^–2 and no discernible trends over the 67 months of integration. On the other hand, this interactive land biosphere causes regional-scale temperature differences of ± 10 °C and commensurate disturbances in other climatic parameters. Tuning, similar to the q-flux schemes used for ocean models, could improve the simulation of the present-day surface climate but, in the longer term, it will be important to focus on predicting the characteristics of the continental surface rather than simple vegetation classes. The coupling scheme will also have to allow for vegetation responses occurring over longer timescales so that the coupled system is buffered from sudden shocks.     

Numerical analysis of a thermotopographically-induced mesoscale circulation in a mountain basin using a non-hydrostatic model

Summary The boundary-layer wind field during weak synoptic conditions is largely controlled by the nature of the landscape. Mesoscale (sub-synoptic) circulations result from horizontal gradients of sensible heat flux due to variation in local topography, variation in surface-cover, and discontinuities such as land-sea contrasts. Such flows are usually referred to as thermally-driven circulations, and are diurnal in nature and often predictable. In this paper we use a state-of-the-art non-hydrostatic computer model to shed light on the physical mechanisms that drive a persistent easterly wind that develops in the afternoon in the Mackenzie Basin, New Zealand. The easterly – Canterbury Plains Breeze (CPB) – is observed early in the afternoon and is often intense, with mean wind speeds reaching up to 12 m s⁻¹. Although computer modelling in mountainous terrain is extremely challenging, the model is able to simulate this circulation satisfactorily. To further investigate the mechanisms that generate the Canterbury Plains Breeze, two additional idealized model experiments are performed. With each experiment, the effects of the synoptic scale wind and the ocean around the South Island, New Zealand were successively removed. The results show that contrary to previous suggestions, the Canterbury Plains Breeze is not an intrusion of the coastal sea breeze or the Canterbury north-easterly, but can be generated by heating of the basin alone. This conclusion highlights the importance of mountain basins and saddles in controlling near-surface wind regimes in complex terrain.     

一次台风前部龙卷的多普勒天气雷达分析

通过分析2004年8月25日发生在浙江省宁波市的一次台风前部龙卷发生发展的环境特征, 发现该龙卷发生在台风前部风切变区里, 尽管当时涡度、散度等物理量对于深对流发展不是非常有利, 但下湿中干、强的垂直风切变及地形条件等还是有利于局地弱龙卷的产生; 在宁波新一代天气雷达产品上表现为强的钩状回波, 速度场上有相邻的正负速度中心及强的组合切变值等。通过多个反射率产品、剖面产品等综合分析了该风暴的三维结构, 初步了解此类弱龙卷的发生机理, 为以后的预报提供一些经验。     

Parameterization of a momentum source in a tropical cumulus ensemble

Summary An eddy effect of tropical deep convection on the large-scale momentum, resp vorticity budget is investigated. The process is specified by a simple parameterization approach which is based on a concept of rotating clouds exerting a momentum on the large-scale flow. The cloud rotation is associated with the thermal properties of a cloud ensemble by the principle of conservation of potential vorticity. A decomposition of cloud classes is applied in consistency with the thermodynamical parameterization scheme of Arakawa and Schubert (1974).The parameterization is tested with observations of GATE74, Phase III. The data are processed on a B/C-scale grid (55km) in a region within 9N and 16N, and between 21W and 27W, and with a vertical resolution of 41 levels. The parameterization results correspond to the observed patterns, especially in situations with strong large-scale wind shear. The findings suggest that certain large-scalle flow regimes provoke convective scale momentum generation rather than redistributing large-scale momentum by convective circulations.With 10 Figures     

Spatial structure of a jet flow at a river mouth

The present work concentrates on the latest data measured in the Jordan river flow in lake Kinneret. Spectral characteristics of fluctuating velocity components have been obtained and processed. The three-dimensional structure of turbulence along the flow has been described. The main features of the jet flow turbulence in the river mouth are: a) The supply of turbulent energy changes due to different mechanisms along the flow. b) The structure of turbulence formed in the river decays rapidly along the flow, and c) In the sand area and beyond it, a significant generation of turbulent energy occurs. Quantitative estimations of the above effects were carried out.     

Unstable modes of a sheared pycnocline above a stratified layer

Internal waves incident on a sheared ocean pycnocline are studied using analytic and numerical methods. Linear analysis of the unstable modes of a sheared ocean pycnocline is used to demonstrate interactions between internal waves and shear instabilities. A new analytic solution for an asymmetric shear layer over a stratified layer is presented, illustrating modes which couple to internal waves, in addition to the well-known Holmboe modes. The robustness of these solutions is demonstrated using numerical methods for realistic shear profiles. Fully nonlinear numerical simulations illustrate the growth of these modes and demonstrate the excitation of shear instabilities by incident internal waves. The results may have implications for internal wave interactions with the ocean pycnocline and the local generation of internal solitary waves.     

The flow of a coastal current past a blunt headland

Abstract

The effect of an abrupt headland on a barotropic oceanic boundary current with variable bottom topography is investigated. The objective is to explore with a very simple model some of the observed features of flow past Brooks Peninsula, an obstacle to boundary currents on the west coast of Vancouver Island. It is shown that the seasonal variation in the background current field causes a large change in the response to the headland. The difference is both quantitative and qualitative and results from the ability of southward alongshore flows to support topographic Rossby lee waves.

As a result of the presence of the lee waves a strong offshore flow occurs just downstream of the Peninsula and this ejects water from the continental shelf into deep water producing features reminiscent of the so‐called “squirts” and “jets”.     

Atmospheric dispersion of a heavier-than-air gas near a two-dimensional obstacle

Flow over a two-dimensional obstacle and dispersion of a heavier-than-air gas near the obstacle were studied. Two species, one representing air and the other representing the heavier-than-air gas were treated. Equations for mass and momentum were cast in mass-averaged form, with turbulent Reynolds stresses and mass fluxes modeled using eddy-viscosity and diffusivity hypotheses. A two-equation k- turbulence model was used to determine the effective turbulent viscosity. Streamline curvature and buoyancy corrections were added to the basic turbulence formulation. The model equations were solved using finite difference techniques. An alternating-direction-implicit (ADI) technique was used to solve the parabolic transport equations and a direct matrix solver was used to solve the elliptic pressure equation.Mesh sensitivities were investigated to determine the optimum mesh requirements for the final calculations. It was concluded that at least 10 grid spaces were required across the obstacle width and 15 across the obstacle height to obtain valid solutions. A non-uniform mesh was used to concentrate the grid points at the top of the obstacle.Experimental measurements were made with air flow over a 7.6 by 7.6 cm obstacle in a boundary-layer wind tunnel. Smoke visualization revealed a low-frequency oscillation of the bubble downstream of the obstacle. Hot-wire anemometer data are presented for the mean velocity and turbulent kinetic energy at the mid-plane of the obstacle and the mid-plane of the downstream recirculation bubble. A single hot-wire probe was found to be suitable for determining mean streamwise velocities with an accuracy of 11 %. The downstream recirculation bubble was unsteady and had a length range from 3 to 8 obstacle lengths.The experimental results for flow over the obstacle were compared with numerical calculations to validate the numerical solution procedure. A sensitivity study on the effect of curvature correction and variation of turbulence model constants on the numerical solution was conducted. Calculations that included the curvature correction model gave a downstream recirculation bubble length of 5.9 obstacle lengths while excluding the correction reduced this length to 4.4.In the second part of the study, numerical calculations were performed for the dispersion of a heavier-than-air gas in the vicinity of the two-dimensional obstacle. Characteristics of an adiabatic boundary layer were used in these calculations. The densities of the contaminant gases were 0, 25 and 50% greater than the air density. Calculations were performed with the contaminant injection source upstream and downstream of the obstacle.Use of the pressure gradient model reduced the size of the dense gas cloud by as much as 12%. The curvature correction model also affected the cloud expanse by reducing the effective turbulent viscosity in the downstream recirculation bubble. The location of the injection source had the largest impact on the cloud size. The area of the cloud within the 5 % contour was three times larger for downstream injection than for upstream injection.     

Effects of a Fence on Pollutant Dispersion in a Boundary Layer Exposed to a Rural-to-Urban Transition

Simultaneous particle-image velocimetry and laser-induced fluorescence combined with large-eddy simulations are used to investigate the flow and pollutant dispersion behaviour in a rural-to-urban roughness transition. The urban roughness is characterized by an array of cubical obstacles in an aligned arrangement. A plane fence is added one obstacle height h upstream of the urban roughness elements, with three different fence heights considered. A smooth-wall turbulent boundary layer with a depth of 10h is used as the approaching flow, and a passive tracer is released from a uniform line source 1h upstream of the fence. A shear layer is formed at the top of the fence, which increases in strength for the higher fence cases, resulting in a deeper internal boundary layer (IBL). It is found that the mean flow for the rural-to-urban transition can be described by means of a mixing-length model provided that the transitional effects are accounted for. The mixing-length formulation for sparse urban canopies, as found in the literature, is extended to take into account the blockage effect in dense canopies. Additionally, the average mean concentration field is found to scale with the IBL depth and the bulk velocity in the IBL.     

Extension of a fluctuating plume model of tracer dispersion to a sheared boundary layer and to a large array of obstacles

Fluctuating plume models provide a useful conceptual paradigm in the understanding of plume dispersion in a turbulent flow. In particular, these models have enabled analytical predictions of higher-order concentration moments, and the form of the one-point concentration probability density function (PDF). In this paper, we extend the traditional formalism of these models, grounded in the theory of homogeneous and isotropic turbulent flow, to two cases: namely, a simple sheared boundary layer and a large array of regular obstacles. Some very high-resolution measurements of plume dispersion in a water channel, obtained using laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) line-scan techniques are utilised. These data enable us to extract time series of plume centroid position (plume meander) and dispersion in the relative frame of reference in unprecedented detail. Consequently, experimentally extracted PDFs are able to be directly compared with various theoretical forms proposed in the literature. This includes the PDF of plume centroid motion, the PDF of concentration in the relative frame, and a variety of concentration moments in the absolute and relative frames of reference. The analysis confirms the accuracy of some previously proposed functional forms of model components used in fluctuating plume models, as well as suggesting some new forms necessary to deal with the complex boundary conditions in the spatial domain.     

华南前汛期锋面对流系统与暖区对流系统的个例分析与对比研究

在2005年6月20日的一次华南暴雨过程中,影响两广地区局地强降水的两个主要的中尺度对流系统(MCS)在性质上有很大不同,初步分析断定,影响广西局地强降水的MCS1为锋面云团,而影响广东局地强降水的MCS2为暖性云团.通过对二者进行对流强度、维持机制以及湿位涡结构的比较分析发现,锋面对流系统MCS1与暖区对流系统MCS2的对流上升速度都很大.引起的局地降水量也相差不多.由于二者存在水汽条件的差异,因此不能排除微小差异主要足由水汽条件直接导致的,无法就此得出它们的对流强度强弱的比较结果;同时,对二者成熟阶段维持机制的对比分析得到,具有锋面特征的MCS1,中高层有很强的偏北气流进入,在对流区是以对流对称不稳定机制来维持对流运动的;而具有非锋面结构的MCS2由于没有偏北气流的进入,加上水汽条件充沛,主要由湿对流不稳定机制来维持对流运动.另外,湿位涡(MPV)结构的对比分析中得到如F结论:在VMP的结构上,二者均表现出中低层潜在对称不稳定结构特征;在VMP1的结构上,锋面对流系统MCS1表现出南北气流相瓦作用的特征,而暖区对流系统MCS2表现出高低空气流相互作用的特征;最后,在VMP2的结构上,MCS1反映了对流区南北两侧高低空急流的作用,而MCS2则反映了对流区内中高层干冷空气下滑的作用.     

Mesoscale Diagnosis of a Torrential Rainfall Caused by a Tropical Depression

On August 5, 2001, Shanghai was struck by a torrential rainfall due to the passage of a tropical depression (TD). The rainfall intensity has been the strongest in recent 50 years. In this paper, a set of mesoscale re-analyses data and the planetary boundary layer observation from a wind profiler are used to understand the possible mechanism of such a heavy rain. Results show that the outburst of a southerly jet in the lower atmosphere triggered the explosive development of cyclonically vertical vorticity in the region with steep potential temperature surfaces in front of the TD; while the cyclonic vorticity increased notably at higher levels due to the small atmospheric vertical stability of westerly currents in the vicinity of Shanghai. The simultaneous sharp development of cyclonic vorticity at different levels should be the main cause for the torrential rainfall.     

Interaction of a negatively buoyant line plume with a density interface

Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the interaction between turbulent line buoyant plumes and sharp density interfaces, with the aim of using the results to interpret oceanic observations pertinent to crack openings in the polar ice-cap (leads). These openings take the form of long narrow channels, and are often modeled as line bouyant plumes. The plumes descend as in a homogenoous fluid, impinge on the density interface, and then spread horizontally as gravity currents. Depending on the Richardson number , where Δb is the buoyancy jump across the interface, l_D is the half-width of the plume before the impingement and q₀is the buoyancy flux per unit length of the source, different flow patterns were identified. When Ri < 0.5, the plumes penetrate deep into the bottom layer, deflect horizontally and then spread while showing little vertical rise. When 0.6 < Ri < 5, the penetration is significant, but the fluid bounces back after entraining heavy fluid from the lower layer and then spreads horizontally above the interface as a gravity current. Appreciable mixing between this current and the lower layer was detected when Ri <1. When Ri > 10, the penetration was small and a sharp-nosed gravity current emerged some time after the impact. Measurements were made on the penetration depth, the velocities of the gravity current and the subsurface flow towards the plume, the entrainment rate and other wave parameters. Possible implications of the results for oceanic cases are also discussed.     

On the theory of a steady circulation in a baroclinic ocean

Some results are presented of numerical experiments associated with calculations of stationary fields of current velocity and temperature in the ocean. Results obtained by two different approaches to the theory of ocean circulation are compared: without regard for horizontal exchange under conditions of bottom sticking and with due regard for horizontal exchange in case of bottom slipping.     

Evaluation of a new aerosol model with a Brownian diffusion technique

Measurements in Alaska in sub-polar night conditions have indicated that the size distribution of atmospheric aerosols varies significantly and systematically depending upon the type of air mass. Atmospheric aerosol particles are small and numerous in warm Pacific marine air mass systems and large and sparse in cold, Arctic-derived air mass systems. In a previous paper this was hypothesized to be associated with the progressive loss of the smallest particles by attachment to cloud droplets under the driving influence of thermal Brownian motion. A theory involving two parameters, (mean particle radius), and n₀ (aerosol number concentration) was developed to describe the process. In the previous paper, the relationship where ν is the Junge power law exponent (ν 3) was derived and has recently been confirmed to acceptable accuracy with the use of a simple experiment which employed diffusive separation. The diffusion experiment has also allowed us to estimate that the fraction of time, φ, that the aerosol-laden polar air masses coexist in the presence of cloud is 0.01 < φ < 0.1. The submicron aerosol particles in Arctic-derived air masses flowing into central Alaska are deduced to have residence times on the order of 10 days.     

Rapid evolution of a jet streak circulation in a pre-convective environment

Summary An analysis of upper- and lower-tropospheric jet streaks and their associated vertical circulations prior to and during the Red River Valley severe weather outbreak of 10 April 1979 is presented utilizing the three-hourly SESAME data sets. The paper emphasizes the transformation of a transverse indirect circulation within the exit region of an upper-level jet streak (ULJ) in which the cross-contour components of the upper-level ageostrophic flow diminish in magnitude and reverse direction as the circulation's ascending branch shifts from the cyclonic-shear side to a position along the axis of the ULJ. The change in character of the vertical circulation over a 3- to 6h period appears to be related to the increasing cyclonic curvature associated with the propagation and amplification of a short-wavelength trough embedded within cyclonic flow.A low-level jet (LLJ) forms initially within the lower branch of the indirect circulation across Texas and later intensifies, in large part, as a response to a propagating and amplifying short-wavelength trough. However, the lack of a corresponding increase of upperlevel mass divergence during this period points to the possibility also influence the low-level Montgomery streamfunction (_m) tendencies that are a significant contributor to the forcing for the LLJ. The three-hourly data also indicate that differential advections associated with jet streak circulations and boundary layer heating can change markedly over very short periods of time and act to destabilize convectively relatively small regions immediately prior to convective outbreaks. The premise that pre-convective environments evolve over a synoptic time- and space-scale (while only the release of the convective instability occurs on the mesoscale) may, therefore, not be correct.

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Die schnelle Entwicklung einer Jetstreak-Zirkulation unter vorkonvektiven Bedingungen

Zusammenfassung Es wird eine Analyse von Jetstreaks der höheren und unteren Troposphäre und die damit verbundenen vertikalen Zirkulationen vor und während des Unwetters beim Red River Valley vom 10. April 1979 mit Hilfe der dreistündlichen SESAME-Daten vorgestellt. Die Arbeit betont die Transformation der Normalkomponente der indirekten Zirkulation im Endbereich eines Jetstreaks im oberen Niveau (ULJ). Hier verringert sich diese Komponente der ageostrophischen Strömung und kehrt ihre Richtung um, wobei der aufsteigende Ast sich von der Seite der zyklonalen Scherung auf eine Position bei der Achse des ULJ verschiebt. Diese änderung der vertikalen Zirkulation in 3 bis 6 Stunden scheint mit der vermehrten zyklonalen Krümmung, die mit dem Fortschreiten und der Verstärkung eines kurzwelligen in die zyklonale Strömung eingebetteten Troges verbunden ist, einherzugehen.Ein Jetstream im unteren Niveau (LLJ) entsteht zuerst im unteren Ast der indirekten Zirkulation über Texas und verstärkt sich später großteils aufgrund der Veränderung des kurzwelligen Troges. Das Fehlen einer entsprechenden Massendivergenz im oberen Niveau deutet jedenfalls darauf hin, daß Prozesse in der planetaren Grenzschicht (PBL) ebenfalls die Änderungen in der Montgomery Stromfunktion (_m) beeinflussen, die einen wichtigen Beitrag für den Antrieb des LLJ darstellen. Die dreistündlichen Daten weisen ebenfalls darauf hin, daß unterschiedliche Advektionen, die mit Jetstreak-Zirkulationen verbunden sind und die Erwärmung in der Grenzschicht sich in kurzer Zeit deutlich ändern und unmittelbar vor konvektiven Ausbrüchen relativ kleine Gebiete destabilisieren können. Daher mag die Annahme, daß sich vorkonvektive Bedingungen in einem synoptischen Zeit-und Raumscale entwickeln (während nur das Freiwerden der konvektiven Instabilität im Mesoscale auftritt) nicht richtig sein.

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With 18 Figures