煤层气井压后返排工艺

煤层气井压后返排,是关井待压力扩散一段时间后放喷,还是及时放喷,一直未能形成统一的认识。从压裂液、压力、关井时间等3个方面进行分析,认为煤层气井压裂后应及时放喷返排,建议时间控制在30 min内。同时根据煤层气井压裂后支撑剂立即沉降、颗粒之间出现胶结的特点,建立了压裂液返排模型。计算结果表明:压后返排时先用小油嘴控制放喷,然后逐步更换较大的油嘴放喷或者敞喷,及时返排压裂液,缩短返排时间。在煤层气井压后返排设计时,为定量选择放喷油嘴直径提供了重要的理论依据。      

Modeling fracturing-fluid flowback behavior in hydraulically fractured shale gas under chemical potential dominated conditions

Shale with high clay content has caused instability from hydration during the hydraulic fracturing process. Macro-level migration phenomenon of water molecules is induced by the chemical potential difference between low-salinity fracturing fluid and high-salinity formation brine. This study aims to establish the equation for the chemical potential difference between fracturing fluid and formation brine by theoretical deduction in order to investigate the effect of the aforementioned phenomenon on fracturing flowback. Accordingly, a mathematical model was established for the gas–water two-phase flow which driven by the chemical potential difference. Viscous force, capillarity and chemiosmosis were considered as the driving forces. A numerical simulation of fracturing fluid flowback with or without considering of the effect of chemiosmosis was performed. A simulation analysis of the water saturation and salinity profiles was also conducted. Results show that capillarity and chemiosmosis hinder fracturing fluid flowback in different degrees. As the condition worsens, they inhibit more than 80% of water to flow back out of the formation, forming a permanent water lock. This study contributes to improvement of the theory on shale gas–water two-phase flow, establishment of a flowback model that suitable for shale gas wells, and accurate evaluation of the fracturing treatment.     

Hydraulic fracturing wastewater in Germany: composition, treatment, concerns

When studying technical methods and measures that could be applicable for flowback treatment, recycling and/or disposal, it is important to characterize the volumes and composition of hydraulic fracturing flowback. In this work, water volumes and water quality data are considered for investigating flowback at three selected drilling sites in Germany. The analysis highlighted an increase of chloride concentrations up to saturation limit over the time. High salinity concentrations were used as indicator for estimating the percentage of hydraulic fracturing fluid and formation water in flowback. For the studied shale gas well a proportion of formation water, 69 %, and hydraulic fracturing fluid, 31 %, in flowback were derived. Thus, 92 % of the hydraulic fracturing fluid remained in the formation. The physical/chemical properties of flowback were categorized in groups to enable the allocation of applicable treatment methods. The analysis revealed that no single technology can meet suitable effluent characteristics, thus two or more treatment systems might be used in series operation. In particular, for flowback containing high salinity concentrations the only treatment options are evaporation or crystallization. Hence, methodological distinctions need to be made between concentration, elimination, disposal and recycling, whereby for the existing concentrate treatment or disposal measures need to be completed and scaled up into the process.     

Analysis of a deformable fracture in permeable material

The response of deformable fractures to changes in fluid pressure controls phenomena ranging from the flow of fluids near wells to the propagation of hydraulic fractures. We developed an analysis designed to simulate fluid flows in the vicinity of asperity‐supported fractures at rest, or fully open fractures that might be propagating. Transitions between at‐rest and propagating fractures can also be simulated. This is accomplished by defining contact aperture as the aperture when asperities on a closing fracture first make contact. Locations on a fracture where the aperture is less than the contact aperture are loaded by both fluid pressure and effective stress, whereas locations where the aperture exceeds the contact aperture are loaded only by fluid pressure. Fluid pressure and effective stress on the fracture are determined as functions of time by solving equations of continuity in the fracture and matrix, and by matching the global displacements of the fracture walls to the local deformation of asperities. The resulting analysis is implemented in a numerical code that can simulate well tests or hydraulic fracturing operations. Aperture changes during hydraulic well tests can be measured in the field, and the results predicted using this analysis are similar to field observations. The hydraulic fracturing process can be simulated from the inflation of a pre‐existing crack, to the propagation of a fracture, and the closure of the fracture to rest on asperities or proppant. Two‐dimensional, multi‐phase fluid flow in the matrix is included to provide details that are obscured by simplifications of the leakoff process (Carter‐type assumptions) used in many hydraulic fracture models. Execution times are relatively short, so it is practical to implement this code with parameter estimation algorithms to facilitate interpretation of field data. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Anisotropic porothermoelastic solution and hydro‐thermal effects on fracture width in hydraulic fracturing

In this study, the effects of the temperature difference between hydraulic fracturing fluid and rock formation on the time‐dependent evolution of fracture width were investigated using a newly derived one‐dimensional anisotropic porothermoelastic analytical solution. The solution is shown to correctly reproduce existing solutions for special cases and corrections for an earlier publication are provided. An analysis of time‐dependent fracture width evolution using Woodford Shale data was also presented. It was found that when the fracturing fluid has the same temperature as the shale formation, the fracture gradually closes back after the initial opening due to the invasion of the fracturing fluid. Practically, in this scenario, proppants should be pumped into the fracture as soon as possible to obtain maximum fracture conductivity. On the other hand, with a fracturing fluid 60 °C colder than the formation, the thermal contraction of the rock dominates the fracture aperture evolution, resulting in a fracture aperture approximately 70% larger than that produced by the hotter fracturing fluid. Consequently, in this case, it is beneficial to delay proppant placement to take advantage of the widening fractures. Finally, it was found that the fracture aperture is directly controlled by the spacing of natural fractures. Therefore, the presence of natural fractures in the shale formation and their spacing influence not only the type of hydraulic fractures created but also what kind and size of proppants should be used to keep them open. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

水平井中多条裂缝同步扩展时裂缝竞争机制

水平井中多条水力裂缝间的应力干扰行为,造成了压裂液排量的非均匀分配,影响了水力裂缝的几何形态。采用边界元法研究岩体在压裂液作用下的变形程度,以幂律流体泊肃叶平板流动方程来研究水力裂缝内部的压裂液流场,考虑了多条裂缝间应力干扰和压裂液流量分配,建立了流-固耦合的水平井多条水力裂缝同步扩展模型。模型可模拟水平井多条水力裂缝几何形态、应力干扰情况和压裂液排量的分配情况,可解释水力裂缝之间的竞争机制。多条裂缝同步扩展时,压裂液排量并非均等地分配到各个裂缝之中,进入到内部裂缝的压裂液流量最小,内部裂缝宽度最小;内部的水力裂缝增长一定长度后,停止增长,并且在应力干扰下逐渐闭合。     

上部地壳岩石流动与显微构造演化--天然与实验岩石变形证据

岩石流动性和变形显微构造的发育直接受温度、压力、应变速率和流体相等制约 ,致使在不同地壳层次岩石的流动性表现出很大的差异。对上部地壳环境条件下天然和实验变形岩石的显微构造分析揭示出一系列具有不同特点以及由不同的成核、扩展和联合方式形成的破裂与微破裂型式的存在。讨论了在上部地壳环境中 ,温度与围压的变化对岩石破裂的影响 ,并阐述了高压破裂与低压破裂及其力学、流变学和显微构造特点 ,提出高压破裂对应于天然变形环境下出现的剪切 (挤压 )破裂 ,而碎裂岩带是典型的天然低压破裂 ,其低压环境的出现可以是浅部低围压或深部高流体压力所致。流体相的存在不仅可以引起石英 ,也可以引起方解石类碳酸盐岩矿物的水解弱化 ,并进而导致岩石流动机制的转变。岩石变形及流体等因素所致的岩石粒度变化 ,则从另一个方面影响着上部地壳岩石流动性的变化。从变形环境考虑 ,随着深度的加大 ,温度和压力升高 ,导致岩石由脆性向韧性转变 ;转变域内岩石的变形是一个复杂过程 ,是多种不同脆性和晶质塑性机制的综合。     

煤岩水力压裂裂缝扩展形态试验研究

通过室内水力压裂物理模拟试验系统,对大尺寸原煤进行了水力压裂模拟试验,根据水力裂缝的空间展布形态分析了煤岩储层水力裂缝的延伸规律,揭示了网状裂缝的形成机制。结果表明：水力裂缝易在弱层理处分叉和转向,发育的层理和裂缝系统等结构面为压裂形成裂缝网络提供了前提条件。泵压曲线呈现出的频繁波动是煤岩内产生网状裂缝的一个显著特征。水力裂缝的起裂与延伸有4种基本模式,裂缝网络的形成多为这4种基本模式的组合。地应力差异系数和泵注排量对煤层水力裂缝形态有较大影响。较小的地应力差异系数更利于网状裂缝的形成;较高的压裂液排量易形成相对简单的裂缝形态,导致压裂改造效果较差。该试验方法和试验结果可为现场水力压裂参数设计和优化提供参考和依据。     

斑岩型矿床容矿裂隙的成矿流体压裂改造及其脉体特点

斑岩型矿石中脉体穿切关系普遍而复杂。斑岩型矿床容矿初始裂隙之间具有程度不同的连通关系，成矿作用过程是成矿组分在既有的裂隙中迁移、充填和沉淀的过程。在多期成矿过程中，如果没有构造应力的改造，似乎不应该出现大量脉体的多期穿切关系。然而不仅是斑岩型矿床，其他与热液活动有关的矿床中均可出现大量脉体的相互穿切现象。针对此种现象，运用水力压裂机理，探讨了成矿流体对初始裂隙的压裂改造作用，认为成矿阶段多期流体活动可以形成与流体活动期次和强度相匹配的无数期新生压裂裂隙，同时可极大地扩展容矿空间的规模和范围。成矿流体压裂改造裂隙也是斑岩型矿床容矿裂隙的重要成因类型。由于流体活动的多期性和压裂裂隙生长的快速性，相比构造活动对脉体的改造，流体压裂成因裂隙所导致的脉体穿切关系更为常见。这些观点较好地解释了斑岩型矿床中频繁而复杂的脉体穿切和错断关系。      

致密气藏压后关井压裂液静态渗吸实验研究——以大庆油田徐家围子区块为例

影响致密储层渗吸的因素较多,但系统的因素划分和敏感性分析依然具有很大挑战。为了高效开采致密气藏,为致密气藏压后焖井时间即开井制度优化提供依据,选取大庆油田徐家围子区块致密砂岩天然岩心,结合压汞、电镜扫描和X射线衍射等实验,在室内开展了静态渗吸实验,研究了致密储层静态渗吸的规律及其影响因素,包括渗吸时间、致密储层的渗透率、孔隙类型、润湿性和压裂液的离子浓度。实验结果表明:致密砂岩岩心静态渗吸气水置换主要作用在静态渗吸过程的早期阶段;在致密气藏的储层渗透率范围内,静态渗吸采出程度随渗透率增大而增大;原生孔为储气空间,与原生粒间孔相连的次生溶蚀孔、粒间溶蚀缝和颗粒边缘溶蚀缝为渗吸提供了畅通的通道;静态渗吸速度和最终采出程度随岩心亲水性的增强而增加;压裂时所用的压裂液浓度越低,储层的渗吸效果越好。研究结果可为致密气井压裂后排采制度设计提供基础。     

贵州岑巩TX 1井牛蹄塘组页岩压裂效果评价

TX1井是四川盆地外围第一口针对牛蹄塘组页岩压裂的井,岩心现场解析含气量为1.00~3.06m3/t,含气性较好,展现了较好的勘探前景.但复杂构造以及下部含水层对后期储层改造提供了挑战.对TX1井进行了压裂改造,返排过程中气体点火2~3m,但后期一直出水,返排率大于100%.利用Meyer软件进行压裂拟合评价,结果显示TX1井在压裂过程中因沟通了底部高含水层,导致压后出水严重;压裂改造未形成复杂的裂缝网络,限制了储层改造的效果.因此认为直井压裂改造受体积的限制,只能作为对页岩储层含气性与产能的评价手段,页岩气商业性开发还需通过水平井钻井和大规模的分段压裂改造来实现.该井的钻探施工与压裂改造经验为本地区下一步勘探开发指明了方向.      

薄互层水力裂缝垂向扩展控制因素试验研究

新疆油田某地区油藏的储隔层岩性组合复杂,呈现突出的薄互层产状特征,研究合、分压判断条件有利于提高压裂效率,增强储层动用程度与压后改造效果。水力裂缝在薄互层中的穿层与裂缝扩展行为受薄互层地质特征与压裂施工参数的影响。基于此,开展了薄互层物理模型压裂试验,研究界面胶结、岩层分布、岩层厚度、压裂液黏度与注液排量对薄互层中水力裂缝垂向扩展的影响分析。试验结果表明：薄互层的地层特征界面胶结与岩层分布是水力裂缝垂向扩展的主要控制因素,界面胶结强度对裂缝垂向扩展行为的影响强于岩层分布;由于弱胶结界面的存在,水力裂缝垂向扩展穿层时可发生方向偏转,抑制裂缝垂向扩展;提高压裂液黏度与注液排量有利于薄互层中水力裂缝的穿层垂向扩展。     

超临界CO2岩石致裂机制分析

超临界CO2是一种介于气体和液体之间的特殊状态的CO2流体,具有低黏、高扩散性和零表面张力等独特的性质。利用超临界CO2作为压裂液,有助于裂缝的起裂和扩展,同时可避免储层伤害。通过研究超临界CO2射流破岩和压裂特性,分析得到了超临界CO2岩石致裂机制。研究结果表明,超临界CO2低黏等特性使其更容易进入岩石微孔和微缝之中,在岩石内部建立大小不一的流体压力系统,使岩石发生拉伸和剪切破坏;常规流体压裂起裂压力较高,裂缝一般为单条或多条平直裂缝,大多沿着同一方向贯穿强度较高的胶结颗粒,且裂缝断面光滑、平整;超临界CO2压裂起裂压力相比于常规流体压裂低,在岩石中形成的裂缝网络较为复杂,裂缝互相连通,一般沿着强度较低的胶结物开裂,较少贯穿胶结颗粒,裂缝断面较为粗糙。该研究结果可为超临界CO2压裂技术的实施提供理论支撑。     

煤层气压裂返排过程中煤粉产出规律实验研究

煤层气压裂返排过程中产出的煤粉影响煤层气解吸运移,易造成煤层渗透率的永久伤害,降低气井产气量。采用自主研发的压裂液裂缝返排实验装置,模拟一定煤粉粒径配比关系下,采用不同的排采制度和不同外加液体,研究裂缝中煤粉的运移规律,测定煤粉和支撑剂被携带出的临界流量和煤粉返排效率,揭示煤粉运移与流体流速、外加液体关系的变化规律。研究表明:清水不能润湿煤粉,煤粉悬浮剂能较好润湿煤粉;煤粉含量越大,流出率越低;煤粉流出量随时间变化满足幂函数递减规律;变排量排采可以增大煤粉的返排效率。      

基于扩展有限元法的碳酸盐岩地热储层岩体裂缝扩展行为

水力压裂作为一种主要的地热能开采手段,其压裂效果除与岩体基本物理力学性质有关外,还与裂隙分布、地应力状态、压裂工程参数等密切相关.为了探究以上因素对水力压裂过程中裂缝扩展行为的影响,以冀中坳陷碳酸盐岩储层岩体为研究对象,基于扩展有限元法,建立裂缝扩展流固耦合模型,分析了水平应力差、射孔方位角、注入液排量和压裂液黏度等参数对裂缝扩展行为的影响.结果表明:单裂缝扩展时,射孔方位角越小、注入量越大、越有利于裂缝扩展;双裂缝扩展时,水平应力差增大,裂缝偏转程度变小;水力裂缝与天然裂缝相交时,较小水平应力差有利于天然裂缝开启.      

不同水力加载条件下非均质储层缝网扩展规律研究

水力压裂可显著提高页岩气等致密储层岩体的渗透性以增加油气产量,然而受多因素影响,水力压裂形成缝网结构的机理和压裂优化设计一直是研究的焦点和难点。本研究基于渗流-应力-破坏耦合计算模拟方法,对不同水力加载条件下的非均质储层水力压裂过程进行了模拟和对比研究。研究结果表明:水力压裂过程中起始注水压力和增量大小对水力压裂缝网扩展和改造区域形态有着显著的影响。当起始注水压力小于等于模型材料体抗拉强度,并缓慢增压致裂时,压裂过程可近似视为稳态应力-破坏-渗流耦合作用过程的不同阶段,这种情况下仅在压裂井孔周围形成两组对称式的伞状水力裂缝带。当对模型体施加高于模型材料体破裂压力的注水压力时,相当于对压裂孔快速施加高动水压力,水力裂缝沿压裂孔全方位迅速萌生并快速扩展,当注水压力值高于破裂压力一定幅值时,压裂改造可形成围绕压裂井全方位的放射状裂缝网络,使压裂储层得以最大范围改造。在拟静力和拟动力两种加载条件下,不同水岩相互作用机理是造成不同水力加载条件出现不同缝网结构的力学机制,而对于实际的页岩气储层改造,压裂产生围绕压裂井全方位放射状的缝网结构则是一种最优的体积压裂改造。     

Numerical analysis of thermal fracturing in subsurface cold water injection by finite element methods

Integration of poromechanics and fracture mechanics plays an important role in understanding a series of thermal fracturing phenomena in subsurface porous media such as cold water flooding for enhanced oil recovery, produced‐water reinjection for waste disposal, cold water injection for geothermal energy extraction, and CO₂ injection for geosequestration. Thermal fracturing modeling is important to prevent the potential risks when fractures propagate into undesired zones, and it involves the coupling of heat transfer, mass transport, and stress change as well as the fracture propagation. Analytical method, finite element method, and finite difference method as well as boundary element method have been used to perform the thermal fracturing modeling considering different degrees and combinations of coupling. In this paper, extended finite element method is employed for the thermal fracturing modeling in a fully coupled fashion with remeshing avoided, and the stabilized finite element method is employed to account for the convection‐dominated heat transfer in the fracturing process with numerical oscillation circumvented. With the thermal fracturing model, a hypothetical numerical experiment on cold water injection into a deep warm aquifer is conducted. Results show that parameters such as injection rate, injection temperature, aquifer stiffness, and permeability can affect the fracture development in different ways and extended finite element method and stabilized finite element method provide effective tools for thermal fracturing simulation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

排量对水力压裂网络扩展影响的试验研究

在页岩气水力压裂开发领域中,压裂液注入排量对裂缝网络的扩展形态具有显著影响。而页岩储层中的随机天然裂缝,会给水力压裂的参数敏感性分析带来不同程度的干扰。首先,根据页岩储层裂缝发育特征,制备了包含3组正交预制裂缝的混凝土试样;然后,采用真三轴压裂系统,对试样进行三向应力加载模拟地应力环境,并以恒定排量向其内部注入流体;最后,将单位体积裂缝面积P₃₂作为体积压裂指标,来定量描述排量对压裂缝网扩展形态的影响。试验结果表明:（1）在块体单元边长较小（即预制裂缝密度较大）的试样中,体积压裂的效果更加显著;（2）小排量压裂液所产生的裂缝一般是激活的预制裂缝,而中排量和高排量压裂液可以使已激活的预制裂缝发生偏转,在混凝土基质中重新开启水力裂缝,从而增加裂缝网络的复杂性;（3）随着排量的增加,试样压裂后的P₃₂值会升高;但排量增加到一定程度后,P₃₂值不再增长,甚至略微下降。     

Numerical modeling of hydraulic fracture propagation,closure and reopening using XFEM with application to in‐situ stress estimation

In this paper, a fully coupled model is developed for numerical modeling of hydraulic fracturing in partially saturated weak porous formations using the extended finite element method, which provides an effective means to simulate the coupled hydro‐mechanical processes occurring during hydraulic fracturing. The developed model is for short fractures where plane strain assumptions are valid. The propagation of the hydraulic fracture is governed by the cohesive crack model, which accounts for crack closure and reopening. The developed model allows for fluid flow within the open part of the crack and crack face contact resulting from fracture closure. To prevent the unphysical crack face interpenetration during the closing mode, the crack face contact or self‐contact condition is enforced using the penalty method. Along the open part of the crack, the leakage flux through the crack faces is obtained directly as a part of the solution without introducing any simplifying assumption. If the crack undergoes the closing mode, zero leakage flux condition is imposed along the contact zone. An application of the developed model is shown in numerical modeling of pump‐in/shut‐in test. It is illustrated that the developed model is able to capture the salient features bottomhole pressure/time records exhibit and can extract the confining stress perpendicular to the direction of the hydraulic fracture propagation from the fracture closure pressure. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于BP神经网络的苏里格气田裂缝强制闭合模型分析

在压裂施工过程中,为了减少压裂液对储层的伤害,压裂液应当被及时排出地层。结合物质平衡原理、渗流力学理论和二维滤失模型,建立了裂缝强制闭合模型,并编制了相应的计算程序,根据井口压力变化规律并结合裂缝闭合条件可得到不同渗透率、裂缝高度和裂缝半长对应的裂缝强制闭合时间。同时,影响裂缝闭合时间的因素权重通过BP神经网络结合理论模型的数据进行了研究。结果显示,渗透率、裂缝高度、返排液粘度、裂缝半长、井筒半径和油嘴半径这六个参数是影响裂缝闭合时间的主要因素,并且在这些因素中,渗透率和油嘴半径的影响权重最大。因此,在压裂液返排过程中,为了实现改善压裂效果的目的,要着重考虑油嘴半径的选择。本文结果为裂缝闭合时间的研究提供了可靠的理论基础。