泥石流源地坡面土体活动随机性规律实验

坡面土体的崩塌活动是泥石流形成的初始过程。为了研究降雨条件下该过程中蕴含的随机性,选择典型泥石流源地坡面进行人工降雨实验,观测坡面径流和坡面土体活动特征。结果表明：坡面径流的产生与坡面土体的供给是2个相对独立的过程;坡面产流过程在时间上具有连续性,空间上具有均匀性,规模上具有稳定性;即使是在恒定的降雨强度条件下,泥石流的源地土体活动也表现为一个离散的土体崩塌序列,具有时间上的间歇性、空间上的聚集性、规模上的随机性,且在时间上服从泊松分布,在规模上服从规模-频率的幂率关系;坡面的水土过程是不完全同步的,泥石流的形成依赖于坡面土体补给的时间、空间和规模分布,这也决定了泥石流阵流的多变和流量的涨落。建立基于土体活动特征的随机性补给模型,结合分布式水文模型,是建立科学的泥石流预报模型的有效方法。     

浊流和泥石流的异重流初期潜入点的实验研究

潜入点的水流泥沙条件是异重流的发生条件和持续条件,受到了国内外学者的广泛关注。初期潜入点Fr代表异重流的发生条件,而稳定潜入点Fr则代表异重流的持续条件。通过一系列的低浓度浊流和高浓度浊流及泥石流的异重流潜入点的实验研究,分析对比低浓度浊流和高浓度浊流及泥石流的异重流的关系,得到在均匀顺直水槽中的异重流初期的潜入点Fr规律。提出在一定的水槽宽度、泥沙浓度条件下,异重流的初期潜入点Fr与头部流速成正比。与其它文献不同研究条件的实验结果对比有很好的一致性,说明该研究结论有很好的可靠性。该研究结论的适用范围为初期潜入点,不适用于稳定潜入点和初期潜入点与稳定潜入点之间的过渡阶段。但高浓度浊流和泥石流的异重流初期潜入点Fr与其稳定潜入点Fr很接近,粘性泥石流的异重流更接近。     

无水滑的水下泥石流运动速度的实验研究

水下泥石流阻力与陆面中泥石流运动阻力的不同点在于上表面的掺混阻力和剪切阻力。由一系列的室内无水滑的水下泥石流和陆面泥石流实验研究得出:水下泥石流运动速度与相同条件下陆面泥石流运动速度之比随不同性质的泥石流,如粘性和稀性泥石流,由于其屈服应力的巨大差别,有很大的不同。由实验得到的由泥石流体的容重和量纲为一的泥石流屈服应力表达的水下无水滑泥石流运动速度和陆面泥石流运动速度用于无水滑水下泥石流运动速度计算较好。     

A simple and general methodology to calibrate seismic instruments for debris flow quantification: application to Cotopaxi and Tungurahua volcanoes (Ecuador)

Debris flows are hazardous phenomena occurring at volcanoes, and monitoring them has proved as challenging as imperative in several cases. The use of seismic instruments to measure and study the physical properties of debris flows has witnessed significant progress in the last years, with the use of improved sensors, innovative methodologies and high-resolution analysis. However, the application of such studies to the practical task of providing early warnings remains limited by the significant amount of infrastructural and technological resources commonly required for their deployment. In Ecuador, debris flows at volcanoes are detected by means of seismic instruments which are usually part of broader monitoring networks, thus requiring calibration to provide quantitative information about the flows and feed early-warning systems. In the present work, a theoretical approach based on the Buckingham Π-theorem is used to determine an expression that linearly correlates the seismic signal produced by a transiting debris flow with its discharge rate, for instruments installed in different substrata and at variable distances from the drainage. The expression is experimentally tested with Acoustic Flow Monitors and Broad-band seismometers installed in the vicinity of drainages at Tungurahua and Cotopaxi volcanoes, where actual debris flows occurred in relation to eruptive activity. The experiments consist in comparing the measured peak amplitude values of the seismic signal envelopes with the estimated peak discharge rates of several events. The results confirm the validity of the theoretical expression with linear correlations observed between the seismic amplitudes and the discharge rates, thus defining calibration expressions that can be generally applied to varied environments and instruments. The seismic instruments calibrated through this methodology can provide instantaneous and reliable predictions of debris flow discharge rates within less than an order of magnitude and only requiring limited data processing and storage. Such level of prediction could help to improve early warning systems based on seismic instruments installed in locations where more developed instrumental arrays are unavailable or unpractical.

     

Practical research on quantitative calculation of debris flow magnitude and disaster intensity

Wind scale or earthquake magnitude is easier to remember and to be understood by the community. Although many systems of classifying debris flows are presently available, it is necessary to propose an index as simple as wind scale or earthquake magnitude for measuring debris flows. Based on the principles used in wind scale and earthquake magnitude calculation, this paper presents the concepts of debris flow magnitude and disaster intensity as well as a new numerical calculation method. Debris flow magnitude is a quantitative index describing the scale of a debris flow. The disaster intensity of a debris flow is a quantitative index describing the severity of the damage to society caused by a debris flow. With their explicit definitions and simple concepts, both indices are considered to be important both practically and theoretically.     

Recognition, classification and mechanical description of debris flows

Various types of flow or mass movement involving water and sediments occur on steep slopes in mountainous areas. Among them, debris flows are peculiar events during which a large volume of a highly concentrated viscous water-debris mixture flows through a stream channel. Throughout the world these phenomena cause considerable damage but remain poorly understood although a basic knowledge is already available concerning their recognition and propagation.

Firstly, a synthesis of the useful practical criteria of recognition is proposed. Debris flows must be seen as intermediate phenomena between hyperconcentrated flows (intense bed load transport) and landslides separated from them by sharp transitions of some characteristics (celerity, deposit nature and flow type). Two parameters, solid fraction and material type, thought to be appropriate for a sound and practical classification, are brought out, and the corresponding complete classification of flow and mass movements in mountain areas is presented. Two extreme debris flow types are thus distinguished: muddy debris flows and granular debris flows. A critical review of recent advances in debris flow dynamic is then proposed. It is pointed out that adequate work must be carried out in the field of non-Newtonian fluid mechanics. In particular, one fundamental rheological property of debris flow materials is the yield stress, which explains thick deposits on steep slopes and can be inferred from field measurements. Furthermore it can be used to estimate viscous dissipation within the bulk during flow. Relevant models predicting muddy debris flow dynamics are already available whereas further progress is needed concerning granular flows.     

火后泥石流成灾特点及研究现状

火后泥石流是指林火发生后火烧迹地附近发生的、与林火紧密联系的泥石流。作为泥石流地质灾害的另一特殊类别,因林火高温燃烧植被进而影响表部土壤结构,导致土壤影响层内密度、孔隙比、渗透性等物理水理性质发生剧烈改变,而出现大量灰烬层和松散泥沙,形成的泥石流常表现出高容重、大黏度流体特征,其成灾机理与普通泥石流具有显著差异。通过对国内外有关火后泥石流启动成灾机理及动力学特性研究的相关文献查阅,并从火后泥石流的启动类型及运动学特征、影响因素以及预测预报、防控措施等进行了综述,显示火后泥石流国外从1936年开始研究,且以美国、澳大利亚和西班牙的研究成果较为全面和系统,而国内除了林业系统有所涉及、且也主要从水土流失、植被恢复等方面考虑外,火后泥石流的研究还没引起我国学者的广泛关注,作为泥石流地质灾害的另一特殊类别基本上尚未进行系统深入的研究,也很少查到国内对火后泥石流方面的研究成果,可以说我国的火后泥石流研究目前尚属空白。针对国内外研究现状,结合我国山区频发森林大火形成泥石流造成的危害性,提出了未来应加强对火后泥石流的成灾机理、时空演化机制及有效防控方法的系统研究。     

Simulation of interactions among multiple debris flows

Adjacent debris flows may interact in many ways: two or more concurrent debris flows may merge; one debris flow can run out over an existing debris flow fan. Such interactions may cause debris flow properties to change in the mixing process as well as more severe adverse effects than those caused by a single debris flow. This paper aims to investigate the interactions among channelized debris flows originated from adjacent catchments. Both concurrent and successive debris flows are considered. If several debris flows originate from different locations concurrently and merge, the volumetric sediment concentration (i.e., the ratio of the volume of solid material to the total volume of debris flow), C _v, is a good index to capture the mixing process of these debris flows. The change in C _v reflects where mixing occurs and the mixing degree. The debris flow properties (e.g., yield stress and dynamic viscosity) evolve in the mixing process and can be captured by the change in C _v. The debris flow with a larger volume dominates the mixing process, and the properties of the mixed debris flow are more similar to those of the larger debris flow. The inundated areas and runout distances of successive debris flows are smaller than those of concurrent debris flows of the same total volume due to the smaller scales of the individual events and blockage by the earlier debris flows. However, the deposit depth in the interacting part of the debris flow fans of successive debris flows can be much larger than that of concurrent debris flows, leading to more destructive cascading hazards (e.g., the formation of debris barrier lakes). The sequence of successive debris flows not only significantly influences the runout characteristics of the debris flows but also substantially affects the cascading hazards.     

汶川震区窄陡沟道型泥石流动力学特性及堵江分析——以都汶高速沿线磨子沟为例

在汶川震区沟道型泥石流中,普遍存在一种窄陡沟道类型,窄陡沟道型泥石流具有沟道纵坡陡、平均宽度窄、流域面积小的地形特点,在震区容易瞬间汇流形成大规模突发性泥石流灾害。结合四川省都汶高速沿线2013年“7·10”特大群发性泥石流,重点以窄陡沟道型的磨子沟泥石流为实例,针对该泥石流对都汶高速、岷江等造成的冲击淤埋及堵塞问题,通过现场调查泥石流形成条件和发育特征,采用大型流体动力学计算软件CFX模拟再现50年一遇暴雨频率下此类窄陡型泥石流的动力学过程,分析其危险范围、评价其冲击都汶高速桥梁,堵塞岷江,淹没岷江两岸居民安置点的破坏性影响,为提出针对性的泥石流防治工程措施提供依据。     

Autogenic avulsion,channelization and backfilling dynamics of debris‐flow fans

Alluvial fans develop their semi‐conical shape by quasi‐cyclic avulsions of their geomorphologically active sector from a fixed fan apex. On debris‐flow fans, these quasi‐cyclic avulsions are poorly understood, partly because physical scale experiments on the formation of fans have been limited largely to turbidite and fluvial fans and deltas. In this study, debris‐flow fans were experimentally created under constant extrinsic forcing, and autogenic sequences of backfilling, avulsion and channelization were observed. Backfilling, avulsion and channelization were gradual processes that required multiple successive debris‐flow events. Debris flows avulsed along preferential flow paths given by the balance between steepest descent and flow inertia. In the channelization phase, debris flows became progressively longer and narrower because momentum increasingly focused on the flow front as flow narrowed, resulting in longer run‐out and deeper channels. Backfilling commenced when debris flows reached their maximum possible length and channel depth, as defined by channel slope and debris‐flow volume and composition, after which they progressively shortened and widened until the entire channel was filled and avulsion was initiated. The terminus of deposition moved upstream because the frontal lobe deposits of previous debris flows created a low‐gradient zone forcing deposition. Consequently, the next debris flow was shorter which led to more in‐channel sedimentation, causing more overbank flow in the next debris flow and resulting in reduced momentum to the flow front and shorter runout. This topographic feedback is similar to the interaction between flow and mouth bars forcing backfilling and transitions from channelized to sheet flow in turbidite and fluvial fans and deltas. Debris‐flow avulsion cycles are governed by the same large‐scale topographic compensation that drives avulsion cycles on fluvial and turbidite fans, although the detailed processes are unique to debris‐flow fans. This novel result provides a basis for modelling of debris‐flow fans with applications in hazards and stratigraphy.     

甘肃陇南武都区泥石流易发性评价

文章分析了甘肃陇南市武都区泥石流形成的自然环境背景、发育特征及易发性。通过野外实地考察,查明了泥石流的发育情况,在此基础上,采用模糊物元可拓方法对泥石流的易发性进行了评价。分析表明,研究区的泥石流具有分布密度高、冲沟及坡面泥石流成片发育、北岸泥石流较南岸发育且粘性泥石流所占比例大于南岸的发育特征;选取岩性、沟床比降、山坡坡度、完整系数、发育程度、降水、断层密度7个因子构建泥石流易发性评价指标体系。通过易发性评价,研究区104条泥石流沟中,66条为高易发性,占总数的63.5%;32条为中等易发性,占总数的30.8%;6条为低易发性,占总数的5.7%。     

泥石流冲击桥墩动力相互作用物理模型试验

在我国西部山区地震、地质活跃带,泥石流灾害对位于泥石流沟道、沟口等位置处的桥墩构成重大威胁。如何量化描述泥石流冲击桥墩的动力过程,是泥石流减灾领域拟要解决的一个重要科学问题。以泥石流灾害威胁成兰铁路沿线桥墩的工程背景为基础,依托大型泥石流模拟系统,进行多组室内大比例泥石流冲击桥墩物理模型试验。研究泥石流流速、流深以及流体特征参数与泥石流冲击压力的相关性。试验结果表明:冲击过程主要受到弗汝德数Fr和雷诺数Re两个无量纲数控制,稀性泥石流冲击压力主要控制参数为Fr,而对于黏性泥石流则同时有Fr和Re的影响;不论是对于峰值冲击力还是冲击功率谱,不同类型泥石流差别显著;在相同重度等条件下,稀性泥石流具有更大的冲击能量;此外,各种类型泥石流通过临界Fr线得到了本质上的区分。研究成果将为桥墩抗泥石流冲击结构设计提供技术支持及科学依据。     

人工降雨条件下冲沟型泥石流起动试验研究

下垫面以位于贡嘎山东坡的熊家沟为模型,开展了不同降雨强度条件下冲沟型泥石流起动的模拟试验,初步研究了冲沟型泥石流的形成机理和演化特征.试验研究表明:(1)在强降雨条件下,水体入渗速度、不同深度土体含水量变化与降雨强度呈反比例关系,降雨强度越大,越不利于水体入渗,而有利于坡面汇流、冲沟径流和下切侵蚀; (2)在强降雨和径流条件下,土体破坏方式、破坏程度以及泥石流形成机理表现出差异性.相对较小雨强降雨条件下,土体破坏方式以滑坡为主,泥石流形成模式表现为滑坡液化与转化起动,雨强较大降雨条件下,土体破坏方式以侵蚀垮塌为主,泥石流形成模式为洪流席卷垮塌体和沟床揭底; (3)起动试验中泥石流阵性特征明显.在强降雨条件下,雨强与泥石流的规模、黏度之间没有正相关性,雨强越大,泥石流黏度越小,试验中多出现的是高含砂洪流,而相对较小雨强作用下由土体液化转化形成的泥石流黏度较大.试验现象和结果与熊家沟泥石流起动、发生过程具有较高的一致性.     

An empirical approach for evaluation of the potential of debris flow occurrence in mountainous areas

Debris flows can occur relatively suddenly and quickly in mountainous areas, resulting in major structural damage and loss of life. The establishment of a model to evaluate the occurrence probability of debris flows in mountainous areas is therefore of great value. The influence factors of debris flows are very complex; they can basically be divided into background factors and triggering factors. Background factors include the mechanical characteristics of geo-materials, topography and landscape, and soil vegetation; and triggering factors include hydrological and rainfall conditions, and human activities. By assessing the dynamic characteristics of debris flows in mountainous areas, some important influence factors are selected here for analysis of their impacts on the occurrence probability of debris flow. A mathematical model for evaluation of the occurrence probability of debris flows is presented and combined with probability analysis. Matlab software is used for the numerical implementation of the forecasting model, and the influences of rainfall, lithology and terrain conditions on the occurrence probability of debris flows are analyzed. Finally, the presented model is applied to forecast the occurrence probability of debris flows in the mountainous area around Qingping Town; the simulation results show that many loose landslide deposits and heavy rainfall are the key factors likely to trigger debris flows in this region.     

Initiation process of debris flows on different slopes due to surface flow and trigger-specific strategies for mitigating post-earthquake in old Beichuan County, China

The 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (Ms 8.0) in China, produced an estimated volume of 28 × 10⁸ m³ loosened material, which led to debris flows after the earthquake. Debris flows are the dominant mountain hazards, and serious threat to lives, properties, buildings, traffic, and post-earthquake reconstruction in the earthquake-hit areas. It is very important to understand the debris flow initiation processes and characteristics, for designing debris flow mitigation. The main objective of this article is to examine the different debris flow initiation processes in order to identify suitable mitigation strategies. Three types of debris flow initiation processes were identified (designated as Types A, B, and C) by field survey and experiments. In “A” type initiation, the debris flow forms as a result of dam failure in the process of rill erosion, slope failure, landslide dam, or dam failure. This type of debris flow occurs at the slope of 10 ± 2°, with a high bulk density, and several surges following dam failure. “B” type initiation is the result of a gradual increase in headward down cutting, bank and lateral erosion, and then large amount of loose material interfusion into water flow, which increases the bulk density, and forms the debris flow. This type of debris flow occurs mainly on slopes of 15 ± 3° without surges. “C” type debris flow results from slope failures by surface flow, infiltration, loose material crack, slope failure, and fluidization. This type of debris flow occurs mainly on slopes of 21 ± 4°, and has several surges of debris flow following slope failure, and a high bulk density. To minimize the hazards from debris flows in areas affected by the Wenchuan earthquake, the erosion control measures, such as the construction of grid dams, slope failure control measures, the construction of storage sediment dams, and the drainage measures, such as construction of drainage ditches are proposed. Based on our results, it is recommend that the control measures should be chosen based on the debris flow initiation type, which affects the peak discharge, bulk density and the discharge process. The mitigation strategies discussed in this paper are based on experimental simulations of the debris flows in the Weijia, Huashiban, and Xijia gullies of old Beichuan city. The results are useful for post-disaster reconstruction and recovery, as well as for preventing similar geohazards in the future.     

Debris flow hazards for mountain regions of Russia: regional features and key events

The total area of debris flow territories of the Russian Federation accounts for about 10% of the area of the country. The highest debris flow activity areas located in Kamchatka-Kuril, North Caucasus and Baikal debris flow provinces. The largest debris flow events connected with volcano eruptions. Maximum volume of debris flow deposits per one event reached 500 × 10⁶ m³ (lahar formed during the eruption of Bezymyanny volcano in Kamchatka in 1956). In the mountains of the Greater Caucasus, the maximum volume of transported debris material reached 3 × 10⁶ m³; the largest debris flows here had glacial reasons. In the Baikal debris flow province, the highest debris flow activity located in the ridges of the Baikal rift zone (the East Sayan Mountains, the Khamar-Daban Ridge and the ridges of the Stanovoye Highland). Spatial features of debris flow processes within the territory of Russia are analyzed, and the map of Debris Flow Hazard in Russia is presented. We classified the debris flow hazard areas into 2 zones, 6 regions and 15 provinces. Warm and cold zones are distinguished. The warm zone covers mountainous areas within the southern part of Russia with temperate climate; rain-induced debris flows are predominant there. The cold zone includes mountainous areas with subarctic and arctic climate; they are characterized by a short warm period, the occurrence of permafrost, as well as the predominance of slush flows. Debris flow events are described for each province. We collected a list of remarkable debris flow events with some parameters of their magnitude and impact. Due to climate change, the characteristics of debris flows will change in the future. Availability of maps and information from previous events will allow to analyze the new cases of debris flows.     

Impacts of September 21, 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake on the characteristics of gully-type debris flows in central Taiwan

Debris flows are more frequent in central Taiwan, because of its mountainous geography. For example, many debris flows were induced by Typhoon Herb in 1996. The Chi-Chi earthquake with a magnitude of 7.3, which took place in 1999 in central Taiwan, induced many landslides in this region. Some landslides turned into debris flows when Typhoon Toraji struck Taiwan in 2001. This study investigates the characteristics of the gullies where debris flows have occurred for a comparison. Aerial photos of these regions dated in 1997 (before the earthquake) and 2001 (after the earthquake) are used to identify the occurrence of gully-type debris flows. A Geographic Information System (GIS) is applied to acquire hydrological and geomorphic characteristics: stream gradient, stream length, catchment gradient, catchment area, form factor, and geology unit of these gullies. These characteristics in different study regions are presented in a statistical approach. The study of how strong ground motion affects the debris flows occurrence is conducted. The characteristics of the debris flow gullies triggered by typhoons before and after the Chi-Chi earthquake are quantitatively compared. The analysis results show that a significant transformation in the characteristics was induced by the Chi-Chi earthquake. In general, the transformation points out a lower hydrological and geomorphic threshold to trigger debris flows after the Chi-Chi earthquake. The susceptibility of rock units to strong ground motion is also examined. The analysis of debris flow density and accumulated rainfall in regions of different ground motion also reveal that the rainfall threshold decreases after the Chi-Chi earthquake.     

藏东南嘎龙曲冰川泥石流的物源特征及其对扎墨公路的影响

在全球气候变暖的大背景下,冰川消融加剧,冰舌后退,冰川泥石流加剧。扎墨公路是目前通往西藏墨脱的唯一公路,公路必经的嘎龙曲发育藏东南地区典型的海洋性冰川泥石流,针对嘎龙曲冰川泥石流的物源特征,经现场调查得出,嘎龙曲冰川泥石流物源类型有冰碛物物源、崩塌型物源以及沟道堆积型物源三类,总结分析了三种物源类型的分布特征和启动模式。通过建立物源计算模型,定量计算嘎龙曲沟域内可参与泥石流活动的松散固体物源动储量为366.28×104 m3,其中冰碛物物源为主要的动储量物源,物源补给特征在藏东南海洋性冰川发育区域具有一定代表性。嘎龙曲沟域内水动力分布的不均一特性决定了物源启动参与泥石流活动的不均一性,随着全球气候变暖影响下水动力条件的增强,嘎龙曲冰川泥石流对扎墨公路的危害会愈加严重。      

Comprehensive hazard assessment and protection of debris flows along Jinsha River close to the Wudongde dam site in China

The occurrence of debris flows close to a hydropower dam not only threatens human lives and structures, but also affects the stability of the dam. Therefore, hazard assessment and protection of debris flows close to the dam are particular and important. In this paper, 3 S (Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System, and Remote Sensing) technologies are applied to determine the characteristics of debris flows. Characteristics that can affect debris flow assessment are classified and extracted. Based on the determined characteristics, the extension theory, which is used for solving incompatibility and contradiction problems, is applied to hazard assessment. In this paper, the idea of self-protection is proposed for debris flow gully protection. The prevention procedures are detailed, including filling of lower reaches and design of drainage works.     

中国泥石流起动物理模拟试验研究进展

为进一步提高泥石流起动物理模拟试验的科学性,完善试验体系,采用资料收集与分析方法,总结了近年来中国泥石流起动物理模拟试验开展的现状,从水流冲刷与泥石流起动试验以及人工降雨与泥石流起动试验两个方面论述了中国泥石流起动试验取得的主要进展和理论成果。在国内外泥石流起动物理模拟试验对照基础上,提出中国泥石流起动物理模拟试验研究的建议:提高水流浓度、降雨雨型与土体特征的相似率;加强降雨或水流作用下土体物理力学特征变化与泥石流起动响应研究;推动降雨与汇流共同作用下泥石流起动综合性物理模拟试验的开展。