Elastic shear stiffness anisotropy and fabric anisotropy of natural clays

Natural clays usually show anisotropic stiffness due to their deposition process and anisotropic in situ stress state. The stiffness anisotropy depends on both of the stress anisotropy and fabric anisotropy, while the latter can be quantified by the stiffness anisotropy at isotropic stress states. This paper measures the K₀ value (i.e., stress anisotropy) and elastic shear stiffness anisotropy of natural Shanghai clay in a triaxial apparatus with horizontal and vertical bender elements. The results show that the K₀ value of Shanghai clay lies in the range of 0.40–0.66, and an empirical equation is proposed to estimate the K₀ value based on the plasticity index and initial void ratio. The fabric anisotropy of natural Shanghai clay lies in the range of 1.2–1.4 with a stronger fabric in the horizontal plane. Moreover, the experimental data of the stiffness anisotropy and fabric anisotropy of different clays in the literature are reviewed and analyzed. It reveals that the stiffness anisotropy generally increases, while the fabric anisotropy remains nearly the same during K₀ consolidation. For normally consolidated clay, the fabric anisotropy generally lies in the range of 1.1–1.7. For overconsolidated clays, the fabric anisotropy generally increases as the overconsolidation ratio increases. Empirical equations are proposed to approximately estimate the fabric anisotropy of clays based on its stress normalized elastic shear stiffness.

     

Upper mantle anisotropy of southeast Arabia passive margin [Gulf of Aden northern conjugate margin], Oman

In this study, we used data recorded by two consecutive passive broadband deployments on the Gulf of Aden northern margin, Dhofar region, Sultanate of Oman. The objective of these deployments is to map the young eastern Gulf of Aden passive continental margin crust and upper mantle structure and rheology. In this study, we use shear-wave splitting analysis to map lateral variations of upper mantle anisotropy beneath the study area. In this study, we found splitting magnitudes to vary between 0.33 and 1.0 s delay times, averaging about 0.6 s for a total of 17 stations from both deployment periods. Results show distinct abrupt lateral anisotropy variation along the study area. Three anisotropy zones are identified: a western zone dominated by NW–SE anisotropy orientations, an eastern zone dominated with NE–SW anisotropy orientations, and central zone with mixed anisotropy orientations similar to the east and west zones. We interpret these shorter wavelength anisotropy zones to possibly represent fossil lithospheric mantle anisotropy. We postulate that the central anisotropy zone may be representing a Proterozoic suture zone that separates two terranes to the east and west of it. The anisotropy zones west and east were being used indicative of different terranes with different upper mantle anisotropy signatures.     

各向异性对软土力学特性影响的离散元模拟

软土预压工程中,初始和诱发各向异性对软土力学性质的影响十分显著,而现有研究缺乏对初始和诱发各向异性的统一研究方法。采用离散单元法,以颗粒长宽比作为定量评价指标,构建真实形态的颗粒模型,生成5组不同沉积角的初始各向异性试样,并进行竖直和水平两方向加载的双轴模拟实验,研究了初始各向异性和诱发各向异性对软土力学特性影响;在细观层面,以颗粒为对象研究了颗粒接触形式和转动角度的变化规律,以接触为对象研究了配位数和接触法向各向异性的发展趋势,在此基础上探究抗剪强度指标与各向异性关系。结果表明:初始和诱发各向异性共同影响试样力学性质,当加载方向和软土沉积方向垂直时,土体有最大的峰值强度。颗粒接触形式中面面接触的比例随加载的进行逐渐增大,并影响着试样初始模量和抗剪强度,配位数和接触法向各向异性受颗粒接触形式的影响有不同的演化规律,并在加载后期趋于稳定;同时,初始各向异性试样相较各向同性试样有更大的黏聚力,诱发各向异性主要影响试样内摩擦角,进而影响试样抗剪强度。     

Strength anisotropy of granular material consisting of perfectly round particles

The strength anisotropy of granular materials deposited under gravity has mostly been attributed to elongated particles' tendency to align long axes along the bedding plane direction. However, recent experiments on near‐spherical glass beads, for which preferred particle alignment is inapplicable, have exhibited surprisingly strong strength anisotropy. This study tests the hypothesis that certain amount of fabric anisotropy caused by the anisotropic stress during deposition under gravity can be locked in a circular‐particle deposit. Such locked‐in fabric anisotropy can withstand isotropic consolidation and leads to significant strength anisotropy. 2D discrete element method simulations of direct shear tests on circular‐particle deposits are conducted in this study, allowing for the monitoring of both stress and fabric. Simulations on both monodispersed and polydispersed circular‐particle samples generated under downward gravitational acceleration exhibit clear anisotropy in shear strength, thereby proving the hypothesis. When using contact normal‐based and void‐based fabric tensors to quantify fabric anisotropy in the material, we find that the intensity of anisotropy is discernible but low prior to shearing and is dependent on the consolidation process and the dispersity of the sample. The fact that samples with very low anisotropy intensity measurements still exhibit fairly strong strength anisotropy suggests that current typical contact normal‐based and void‐based second‐order fabric tensor formulations may not be very effective in reflecting the anisotropic peak shear strength of granular materials. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Magnetocrystalline anisotropy of rocks and massive ores: A mathematical model study and its fabric implications

A simple mathematical model has been used to evaluate the influence of grain magnetocrystalline anisotropy and the scatter of crystallographic axes of grains on the magnetic anisotropy of rocks and massive ores whose carrier of magnetism is a magnetically uniaxial mineral of the type of pyrrhotite or hematite. The variation in magnetic anisotropy of rocks and ores whose carrier of magnetism displays the magnetocrystalline anisotropy greater than 100 is due to the variation in the preferred orientations of crystallographic axes, while the influence of the variation in the grain anisotropy on the rock (ore) anisotropy can be neglected.     

Anisotropic shear strength characteristics of a tailings sand

The deposition process of tailings in a tailings dam may lead to the anisotropy of mechanical properties of tailings. To investigate the anisotropic shear strength characteristics of a tailings sand, samples deposited under gravity were sheared in a modified direct shear apparatus along different orientations of the shear planes relative to the bedding plane. The experimental results reveal that the anisotropy has a substantial effect on the peak shear strength of the tailings sand, leading to a variation in peak friction angle of 10°. It is found that the effect of anisotropy on the peak shear strength of the tailings sand is mainly attributed to the effect of anisotropy on soil dilatancy. On the other hand, the effect of anisotropy on the residual friction angle of the tailing sand is relatively smaller, likely due to the partial erasure of anisotropy at large shear deformation. The degree of anisotropy is reduced by an increase in normal stress. To achieve more accurate stability analysis of tailings dams, it is suggested to take into account the shear strength anisotropy of tailings soils.     

Evolution of anisotropy with saturation and its implications for the elastoplastic responses of clay rocks

Many clay rocks have distinct bedding planes. Experimental studies have shown that their mechanical properties evolve with the degree of saturation (DOS), often with higher stiffness and strength after drying. For transversely isotropic rocks, the effects of saturation can differ between the bed-normal (BN) and bed-parallel (BP) directions, which gives rise to saturation-dependent stiffness and strength anisotropy. Accurate prediction of the mechanical behavior of clay rocks under partially saturated conditions requires numerical models that can capture the evolving elastic and plastic anisotropy with DOS. In this study, we present an anisotropy framework for coupled solid deformation-fluid flow in unsaturated elastoplastic media. We incorporate saturation-dependent strength anisotropy into an anisotropic modified Cam-Clay (MCC) model and consider the evolving anisotropy in both the elastic and plastic responses. The model was calibrated using experimental data from triaxial tests to demonstrate its capability in capturing strength anisotropy at various levels of saturation. Through numerical simulations, we demonstrate the role of evolving stiffness and strength anisotropy in the mechanical behavior of clay rocks. Plane strain simulations of triaxial compression tests were also conducted to demonstrate the impacts of material anisotropy and DOS on the mechanical and fluid flow responses.     

Simplified Method for the Assessment of the Stiffness Anisotropy of Rocks at Small Strains

Summary A new, practically applicable method for characterizing the stiffness anisotropy of rocks is presented. The anisotropy of geo-materials is often ignored in engineering applications, with potentially serious ramifications, because of the number of parameters required for characterization. The elastic anisotropy has often been considered to be a function of mathematical symmetry, and the restrictions due to layering, microcracking and granularity of the materials have not been considered in the assessment of the anisotropy. The practicality of the method proposed here is achieved by rationally reducing the number of independent anisotropy parameters, typically 9 for orthotropic anisotropy, to a system of 4 independent parameters through a systematic theoretical and experimental analysis of these structural restrictions. These 4 parameters are shown to be sufficient for describing the anisotropy of some rocks and sands at small strains, and parameter determination by back-analysis is demonstrated to be stable using appropriate measurement systems involving 9 elastic wave velocities even when the directions of anisotropic axes are unknown and the velocity data contains appreciable error.     

Effects of hydraulic conductivity/strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified,poorly cemented rock slopes

This paper presents a numerical procedure to explore how hydraulic conductivity anisotropy and strength anisotropy affect the stability of stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes. The results provide information about the anisotropic characteristics of the medium, including the orientation of bedding planes, the anisotropic ratios of the hydraulic conductivity and the geological significance of the hydraulic conductivity anisotropy on the pore water pressure (PWP) estimation of finite slopes. Neglecting the hydraulic conductivity anisotropy of a slope with horizontal layers leads to a 40% overestimation of the safety factor. For a dip slope with inclined layers with θ = 30°, including the strength anisotropy caused a 25% reduction of the safety factor compared to the cases which isotropic strength is assumed. This paper highlights the importance of the hydraulic-conductivity anisotropy and the strength anisotropy on the stability of stratified, poorly cemented rock slopes.     

Impacts of saturation-dependent anisotropy on the shrinkage behavior of clay rocks

Geomaterials such as soils and rocks can exhibit inherent anisotropy due to the preferred orientation of mineral grains and/or cracks. They can also be partially saturated with multiple types of fluids occupying the pore space. The anisotropic and unsaturated behaviors of geomaterials can be highly interdependent. Experimental studies have shown that the elastic parameters of rocks evolve with saturation. The effect of saturation has also been shown to differ between directions in transversely isotropic clay rock. This gives rise to saturation-dependent stiffness anisotropy. Similarly, permeability anisotropy can also be saturation-dependent. In this study, constitutive equations accommodating saturation-dependent stiffness and hydraulic anisotropy are presented. A linear function is used to describe the relationship between the elastic parameters and saturation, while the relative permeability–saturation relationship is characterized with a log-linear function. These equations are implemented into a hydromechanical framework to investigate the effects of saturation-dependent properties on the shrinkage behavior of clay rocks. Numerical simulations are presented to demonstrate the role of saturation-dependent stiffness and hydraulic anisotropy in shrinkage behavior. The results highlight that strain anisotropy and time evolution of pore pressures are substantially influenced by saturation-dependent stiffness and hydraulic anisotropy.

     

The signature of shear-induced anisotropy in granular media

This paper presents a micro-mechanical study on the characteristics of shear-induced anisotropy in granular media. Based on three-dimensional Discrete Element Method (DEM) simulations, the distinct features associated with the evolution of internal granular structure and different anisotropy sources during drained/undrained shearing of granular samples are carefully examined. The study finds that static liquefaction occurs when the geometrical anisotropy in a sample dominates the mechanical anisotropy in the overall shear strength, and the weak force network features an exceptionally high proportion of sliding contacts and develops certain degree of anisotropy. Phase transformation corresponds to a transitional, unstable state associated with a dramatic change in both coordination number and the proportion of sliding contacts in all contacts. The critical state in a granular material is always associated with a highly anisotropic fabric structure wherein both the critical void ratio and critical fabric anisotropy are uniquely related to the mean effective stress. The relations provide a more comprehensive definition for the critical state in granular media with proper reference to the critical fabric anisotropy.     

考虑土体非均质和各向异性的锚索极限抗拔力研究

考虑土体的非均质性与各向异性,结合预应力锚索锚固段土体的破裂形式,利用非线性强度准则,根据极限状态下力的平衡原理,推导出一个可考虑土体非均质性、各向异性与非线性破坏性质等多种因素影响的锚索极限抗拔力计算公式,并通过理论计算,分析土体非均质性、各向异性以及非线性强度系数对锚索极限抗拔力的影响。计算研究表明,土体的非均质性与各向异性对锚索抗拔力的影响显著,随着土体非均质常数的增加,锚索极限抗拔力不断提高,而随着各向异性系数与非线性强度系数的增加,抗拔力则有所下降;当土体非均质常数与各向异性系数提高时,土体破裂范围不断增大,研究结果可为锚索锚固体的设计提供一定参考。     

Shear Wave Anisotropy of the Upper Mantle Beneath the Region from Tingri of Tibet to Golmud of Qinghai

Measurements of shear wave splitting at 43 three-component seismic stationsshow very big difference in anisotropy on both sides of the Indus-Yarlung Zangbo suture(ITS), but little difference on both sides of the older Bangong-Nujiang suture (BNS) and theJinsha River suture (JS) to its north. Obvious discrepancy exists between the anisotropy direc-tion and the superficial tectonic trends, which is not explicable directly by the coherent uppermantle deformation usually supposed to occur in consistency with the trend of a collisional belt.On the other hand, strong spatial relationships are observed from the anisotropy results, such asthe orthogonal directions of anisotropy on both sides of ITS and the good correlation betweenthe region of larger magnitude of anisotropy and the zone of inefficient Sn propagation ofQiangtang as well as the systematic rotation of the directions of anisotropy, which should testifysome much more complicated aspects of the continental convergence mechanism. To the best ofour data, we tend to suppose that the Qinghai-Tibet plateau might result from a mechanismcomplicated by the coexistence of Argand's underthrusting and Dewey's diffuse deformation.     

基于旋转采样法的结构面粗糙度各向异性评价

岩石结构面粗糙度各向异性评价存在不确定性.本文基于高精度激光扫描技术获得的结构面三维点云数据,提出了一种评价岩石结构面粗糙度系数(JRC)各向异性的旋转采样法.通过典型结构面试样的对比分析,探讨了采样方法和尺寸对JRC各向异性的影响.结果表明:(1)已有的单一轮廓线采样法获得的JRC各向异性数据离散,各向异性评价结果偏...     

页岩油气储层纵向多重非均质性及其对开发的影响

页岩油气作为烃源岩层系内自生自储的油气资源,其可开发性受页岩储层特征的控制明显。由于不同类型富有机质页岩形成环境的差异性,页岩油气储层在纵向上具有多重非均质性,包括岩性的纵向非均质性、储层物性的纵向非均质性、岩石力学参数的纵向非均质性、地应力的纵向非均质性以及含气性特征的纵向非均质性等,这造成了页岩油气储层的纵向非均质性明显强于横向非均质性,有机质丰度、孔隙度、渗透率、储层的可压裂性、地应力、含气性及吸游比等参数在纵向上的变化均较大,且直接影响了后期页岩油气开发方案的设计与实施。优质开发目的层段的选择首先要考虑单段页岩油气储层的连续厚度在30~50 m左右、有机碳含量均值达到2.0%以上、有效孔隙度大于2.0%、岩石泊松比小于0.25、脆性较大、最小主应力相对上下邻层较小、含气性较高的层段。页岩油气开发井型的选择,水平井段的部署,压裂分段的长短、射孔簇的设计等均要充分考虑这种非均质性的影响。     

A comparison of the fabric and permeability anisotropy of consolidated and sheared silty clay

This paper reports the geotechnical aspects of an experimental programme investigating the permeability of shear zones in clay-rich sediments. Oedometric and ring shear permeameters were used to investigate and compare permeability anisotropy in consolidated and sheared silty clay, to simulate the behaviour of wall-rock sediments and shear zone sediments respectively. In line with other studies, consolidated silty clay was found to have no significant permeability anisotropy, although clay fabric anisotropy was well developed. However, sheared silty clay showed an increase in permeability anisotropy (r_k = 3−16) with decreasing void ratio (e = 0.8−0.4), corresponding to effective stresses of 100 kPa to 4 MPa. This level of anisotropy was retained during shearing along the unloading path, and no significant dilation or enhancement of permeability was observed.     

Exploring the relative contribution of mineralogy and CPO to the seismic velocity anisotropy of evaporites

We present the influence of mineralogy and microstructure on the seismic velocity anisotropy of evaporites. Bulk elastic properties and seismic velocities are calculated for a suite of 20 natural evaporite samples, which consist mainly of halite, anhydrite, and gypsum. They exhibit strong fabrics as a result of tectonic and diagenetic processes. Sample mineralogy and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) were obtained with the electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) technique and the data used for seismic velocity calculations. Bulk seismic properties for polymineralic evaporites were evaluated with a rock recipe approach. Ultrasonic velocity measurements were also taken on cube shaped samples to assess the contribution of grain-scale shape preferred orientation (SPO) to the total seismic anisotropy. The sample results suggest that CPO is responsible for a significant fraction of the bulk seismic properties, in agreement with observations from previous studies. Results from the rock recipe indicate that increasing modal proportion of anhydrite grains can lead to a greater seismic anisotropy of a halite-dominated rock. Conversely, it can lead to a smaller seismic anisotropy degree of a gypsum-dominated rock until an estimated threshold proportion after which anisotropy increases again. The difference between the predicted anisotropy due to CPO and the anisotropy measured with ultrasonic velocities is attributed to the SPO and grain boundary effects in these evaporites.     

Plasticity model for inherently anisotropic behaviour of sands

Most deposited sands exhibit anisotropic behaviour. A plasticity model has been proposed with the capacity for simulating such anisotropic behaviour. The proposed model contains a number of coefficients of anisotropy. Methodology for determination of the coefficients of anisotropy has been discussed. Using experimental data, the coefficients of anisotropy have been determined for a number of well-known sands. Stress-dilatancy has been modelled by using the ‘normalized work’ and it has been shown that the normalized work is independent of inherent anisotropy. Finally, some reasonably close comparisons between experimental results and model simulations have been reported.     

Modeling of elastic anisotropy due to one-dimensional plastic consolidation of clays

Experiments indicate that in one-dimensionally consolidated natural clays the elastic anisotropy is much stronger than the plastic strain anisotropy. Moreover, the elastic anisotropy appears to be dependent on the pre-consolidation strain. Coupled elasto-plastic constitutive law is shown to be able to simulate these anisotropy effects of natural clay deposits. In this law the elastic potential is not only a function of stress, but additionly of the plastic strain. The plastic strain comprises the geological process of pre-consolidation idealized as an one-dimensional plastic straining as well as a mechanically induced strain due to engineering activity. Calibration of the model and simulation of some stress paths are presented and related to the classical experimental results by Mitchell (1972).     

Magnetic anisotropy of hematite natural crystals: high field experiments

Hematite is one of the most important carriers of remanent magnetization in natural samples. Its strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy makes it difficult to determine one single value for the magnetic anisotropy constant and other magnetic properties. In particular, the anisotropy of hematite within its basal plane is controversial because an assumed triaxial anisotropy compatible with the crystallographic structure has not always been detected. This study presents a comparative analysis of rock magnetic properties, compositional analysis and determination of the magnetic anisotropy constant. Different models with anisotropy constant within the basal plane ranging from 0 to 13 (J m⁻³) are considered in the evaluation of the factors that control the presence or absence of a triaxial anisotropy. A linear relationship between saturation magnetization (M _s ) and coercitivity (B _c ) in measurements at increasing temperatures is observed in samples where anisotropy is either uniaxial or biaxial while those with significant triaxial anisotropies have a power–law relationship between M _s and B _c .