Trends and scales of observed soil moisture variations in China

A new soil moisture dataset from direct gravimetric measurements within the top 50-cm soil layers at 178 soil moisture stations in China covering the period 1981-1998 are used to study the long-term and seasonal trends of soil moisture variations, as well as estimate the temporal and spatial scales of soil moisture for different soil layers. Additional datasets of precipitation and temperature difference between land surface and air (TDSA) are analyzed to gain further insight into the changes of soil moisture. There are increasing trends for the top 10 cm, but decreasing trends for the top 50 cm of soil layers in most regions. Trends in precipitation appear to dominantly influence trends in soil moisture in both cases. Seasonal variation of soil moisture is mainly controlled by precipitation and evaporation, and in some regions can be affected by snow cover in winter. Timescales of soil moisture variation are roughly 1-3 months and increase with soil depth. Further influences of TDSA and precipitation on soil moisture in surface layers, rather than in deeper layers, cause this phenomenon. Seasonal variations of temporal scales for soil moisture are region-dependent and consistent in both layer depths. Spatial scales of soil moisture range from 200-600 km, with topography also having an affect on these. Spatial scales of soil moisture in plains are larger than in mountainous areas. In the former, the spatial scale of soil moisture follows the spatial patterns of precipitation and evaporation, whereas in the latter, the spatial scale is controlled by topography.     

Different data,different general circulations? A comparison of selected fields in NCEP/DOE AMIP-II and ECMWF ERA-40 reanalyses

Reanalysis datasets have been very popular for understanding the general circulation as well as verifying general circulation models. The most recent versions of global reanalysis datasets prepared by ECMWF (“ERA-40”) and NCEP (“NDRa2”) are examined in this article. The NDRa2 data are regridded to the resolution (2.5° × 2.5° longitude and latitude) of the ERA-40 public data. Primary variables that both relate to the atmosphere's general circulation and are readily available are compared and contrasted. Significant differences are found in the primary circulation variables and energetics. The zonal mean Hadley cells are stronger in ERA-40, but differences in temperature and moisture make the poleward heat transport by the cells more similar in the two datasets. The subtropical and polar night jet streams are stronger in ERA-40 data as is kinetic energy. The surface energy budgets differ in that ERA-40 data have greater sensible heat flux into the air, while NDRa2 data have greater latent heat flux. The result is NDRa2 has more moisture in the subtropics; ERA-40 data have more moisture in the tropics. Geographically, the two datasets have notable differences in their treatment of the intertropical convergence zone (ICZ). The ICZ over the Atlantic and eastern Pacific is narrower and stronger in ERA-40 data. The ICZ over the western Pacific and Indian oceans is generally stronger in NDRa2 data, one consequence is a stronger tropical easterly jet in NDRa2 data over the Indian Ocean in JJA. Both datasets have a double ICZ in the western half of the Pacific in DJF; in JJA ERA-40 retains that double ICZ but NDRa2 largely does not. Beyond the handling of the ICZ, the datasets differ in tropical zonal mean zonal wind, ERA-40 data in DJF has zonal mean upper troposphere tropical westerlies where NDRa2 data have easterlies; this difference may imply a different amount of interhemispheric communication. The datasets also have strong disagreements in regions of large-scale higher topography.     

A review of the temporal and spatial variability of Arctic and Antarctic atmospheric circulation based upon ERA-40

A survey of the spatial and temporal behavior of the atmospheric general circulation as it relates to both polar regions is presented. The review is based on the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) 40-year reanalysis (ERA-40), updated using ECMWF operational analyses. The analysis spans 1960–2005 in the Northern Hemisphere, but is restricted to 1979–2005 in the Southern Hemisphere because of difficulties experienced by ERA-40 prior to the modern satellite era.The seasonal cycle of atmospheric circulation is illustrated by focusing on winter and summer. The huge circulation contrasts between the land-dominated Northern Hemisphere and the ocean-dominated Southern Hemisphere stand out. The intensification of the North Atlantic Oscillation/Northern Annular Mode and the Southern Annular Mode in DJF is highlighted and likely due to warming of the tropical Indian Ocean. The Arctic frontal zone during northern summer and the semi-annual oscillation throughout the year in the Southern Hemisphere are prominent features of the high latitude circulation in the respective hemispheres.Rotated principal component analysis (RPCA) is used to describe the primary modes of temporal variability affecting both polar regions, especially the links with the tropical forcing. The North Atlantic Oscillation is a key modulator of the atmospheric circulation in the North Atlantic sector, especially in winter, and is the dominant control on the moisture transport into the Arctic Basin. The Pacific-South American teleconnection patterns are primary factors in the high southern latitude circulation variability throughout the year, especially in the Pacific sector of Antarctica where the majority of moisture transport into the continent occurs.     

A statistical retrieval algorithm for root zone soil moisture

An algorithm for the estimation of root zone soil moisture is presented. Global fields of the soil moisture within the uppermost metre of soil are derived with a temporal resolution of 10 days. For calibration, long-term soil moisture observations from the former Soviet Union are used. The variance of the measurements is largely dominated by the spatial variability of the long-term mean soil moisture, while the temporal variability gives comparatively small contribution. Consequently, the algorithm is organised into two steps. The first step concentrates on the retrieval of the spatial variance of the long-term means, which comprises more than 85% of the total soil moisture variability. A major part of the spatial variance can be explained by four easily available fields: the climatological precipitation, land use, soil texture, and terrain slope. The second step of the algorithm is dedicated to the local temporal variability. This part of variability is recovered by using passive microwave data from scanning multichannel microwave radiometre (SMMR) supported by monthly averaged fields of air temperature and precipitation. The 6-GHz channel of SMMR is shown to be severely disturbed by radio frequency interference, so that information from the 10-GHz channel is used instead. The algorithm provides reasonable soil moisture fields which is confirmed by a comparison with independent measurements from Illinois.     

比较NCEP/NCAR和ERA-40再分析资料与观测资料计算得到的感热资料的差异

利用1951～2000年我国西北干旱、半干旱区地温、气温和表面风场逐日4个时次（北京时间2、8、14和20时）的台站观测资料,以及NCEP/NCAR和ERA-40再分析资料,计算并比较了在我国西北地区春夏季感热输送的差异。分析结果表明:NCEP/NCAR和ERA-40的感热输送再分析资料都能显示出我国西北地区是欧亚大陆上的感热中心之一。从年代际时间尺度上,ERA-40再分析资料的感热资料更接近于实际台站观测资料计算得到的感热资料。       

三江平原土壤湿度记忆性及其与水热气候条件的关系

利用1982—2020年三江平原19个国家气象观测站土壤湿度及同期降水、气温数据, 基于相关系数和自相关系数统计方法, 分析了黑龙江省三江平原土壤湿度记忆性及与降水、气温之间的关系。结果表明: 春、夏季三江平原土壤湿度记忆时间均在10—40 d, 各层土壤湿度记忆性的空间分布以中间层(10—20 cm)土壤湿度平均记忆时间最长, 呈上下层递减的趋势; 春季三江平原10—20 cm土层土壤湿度的记忆时长平均20 d, 夏季平均17 d; 夏季土壤湿度记忆性强度大于春季, 空间分布以三江平原西部的记忆性较强, 随着土层的增加土壤湿度记忆性有增大的趋势。降水是三江平原土壤湿度主要来源, 受降水和气温协同作用的影响, 夏、秋季土壤湿度与同期降水量、温湿指数均存在显著的正相关关系; 春季土壤湿度与前期秋冬季降水亦呈显著正相关, 与前期温湿指数呈负相关, 前期秋冬季气温的升高会促进土壤的融冻, 从而使当年春季土壤水分增加。     

How Does the Partitioning of Evapotranspiration and Runoff between Different Processes Affect the Variability and Predictability of Soil Moisture and Precipitation？

Water stored as part of the land surface is lost to evapotranspiration and runoff on different time scales,and the partitioning between these time scales is important for modeling soil water in a climate model.Different time scales are imposed on evapotranspiration primarily because it is derived from different reservoirs with different storage capacities, from the very rapid evaporation of canopy stores to the slow removal by transpiration of rooting zone soil moisture. Runoff likewise ranges in time scale from rapid surface terms to the slower base-flow. The longest time scale losses of water determine the slow variation of soil moisture and hence the longer time scale effects of soil moisture on precipitation. This paper shows with a simple analysis how shifting the partitioning of evapotranspiration between the different reservoirs affects the variability of soil moisture and precipitation. In particular, it is concluded that a shift to shorter time scale reservoirs shifts the variance of precipitation from that which is potentially predictable to unpredictable.     

Comparison of surface variables from ERA and NCEP reanalysis with station data over eastern China

This study compared precipitation, mean air temperature (MAT) and mean sea level pressure (MSLP) from two widely used reanalysis datasets (ERA-40 and NCEP) with those from observed stations across eastern China. The evaluation was based on a comparison of both temporal and spatial variability and included several assessment criteria such as the mean values, normalized root mean square error, Mann–Kendall test, empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) and probability density functions. The results showed that both the ERA-40 and NCEP datasets could capture temporal and spatial variability of the observed precipitation, MAT and MSLP over eastern China. The results showed that the two reanalysis datasets performed better for MAT and MSLP than for precipitation. Overall, the two reanalysis datasets revealed reasonable agreement with observations according to the evaluation. ERA-40 was better at capturing the temporal and spatial distributions for these three variables than NCEP, especially for MAT and MSLP. NCEP tended to overestimate the annual precipitation for both mean and extreme values, while ERA-40 tended to underestimate it, particularly for extreme values. The two reanalysis datasets performed better in the east and northeast regions of the study area than in other regions for capturing the temporal variability of MAT and MSLP. ERA-40 was poor at capturing the temporal variability of precipitation in northeastern China. According to the trend analysis, the two reanalysis datasets showed lower trends for MAT and precipitation and higher trends for MSLP. Both ERA-40 and NCEP had larger explained variances for the first two EOFs than the observed precipitation. This implies that both reanalysis datasets tend to simulate a more uniform spatial distribution for precipitation in the study area.     

Trends and variability in column-integrated atmospheric water vapor

An analysis and evaluation has been performed of global datasets on column-integrated water vapor (precipitable water). For years before 1996, the Ross and Elliott radiosonde dataset is used for validation of European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) reanalyses ERA-40. Only the special sensor microwave imager (SSM/I) dataset from remote sensing systems (RSS) has credible means, variability and trends for the oceans, but it is available only for the post-1988 period. Major problems are found in the means, variability and trends from 1988 to 2001 for both reanalyses from National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the ERA-40 reanalysis over the oceans, and for the NASA water vapor project (NVAP) dataset more generally. NCEP and ERA-40 values are reasonable over land where constrained by radiosondes. Accordingly, users of these data should take great care in accepting results as real. The problems highlight the need for reprocessing of data, as has been done by RSS, and reanalyses that adequately take account of the changing observing system. Precipitable water variability for 1988–2001 is dominated by the evolution of ENSO and especially the structures that occurred during and following the 1997–98 El Niño event. The evidence from SSM/I for the global ocean suggests that recent trends in precipitable water are generally positive and, for 1988 through 2003, average 0.40±0.09 mm per decade or 1.3±0.3% per decade for the ocean as a whole, where the error bars are 95% confidence intervals. Over the oceans, the precipitable water variability relates very strongly to changes in SSTs, both in terms of spatial structure of trends and temporal variability (with a regression coefficient for 30°N–30°S of 7.8% K^?1) and is consistent with the assumption of fairly constant relative humidity. In the tropics, the trends are also influenced by changes in rainfall which, in turn, are closely associated with the mean flow and convergence of moisture by the trade winds. The main region where positive trends are not very evident is over Europe, in spite of large and positive trends over the North Atlantic since 1988. A much longer time series is probably required to obtain stable patterns of trends over the oceans, although the main variability could probably be deduced from past SST and associated precipitation variations.     

中国地区土壤湿度记忆性及其与降水特征变化的关系

本文首先利用中国气象局国家气象信息中心提供的中国732个站点观测的土壤体积含水量,评估了CLM4.5(Community Land Model version 4.5)在CFSR(Climate Forecast System Reanalysis)近地面大气数据驱动下模拟的逐月土壤湿度(记为CLM4.5-CFSR),...     

Precipitation climate of Central Asia and the large-scale atmospheric circulation

The precipitation climate in the larger Tian Shan region of Central Asia is described in terms of the climatological seasonal moisture fluxes and background circulation based on the ERA-40 reanalysis data and a precipitation reanalysis. The study area is partitioned into (1) the Tarim river basin, (2) bordering regions of China, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, and (3) Northwestern China. Moisture supply to these areas is primarily due to the midlatitude westerlies with contributions from higher latitudes. In addition, moisture from the Indian Ocean is notably imported into the Tarim drainage area. Monthly interannual precipitation variability relates to the variability of hemispheric circulation patterns. Extreme precipitation above and below normal in Western China and Central Asia is analyzed using the standardized precipitation index. Related circulation composites show that, despite regional and seasonal differences, episodes of extreme and severe dryness are dominated by various upstream standing wave patterns from the North Atlantic to Central Asia. These features extend further downstream to the North Pacific. Non-symmetry between wet and dry composites is noted upstream and in regional moisture flux composites.     

Evaluation of the twentieth century reanalysis dataset in describing East Asian winter monsoon variability

The Twentieth Century Reanalysis （20thCR） dataset released in 2010 covers the period 1871-2010 and is one of the longest reanalysis datasets available worldwide. Using ERA-40, ERA-Interim and NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data, as well as HadSLP2 data and meteorological temperature records over eastern China, the performances of 20thCR in reproducing the spatial patterns and temporal variability of the East Asian winter monsoon （EAWM） are examined. Results indicate that 20thCR data： （1） can accurately reproduce the most typical configuration patterns of all sub-factors differences in the main circulation fields over East Asia involved in the EAWM system, albeit with some in comparison to ERA-40 reanalysis data; （2） is reliable and stable in describing the temporal variability of EAWM since the 1930s; and （3） can describe the high-frequency variability of EAWM better than the low-frequency fluctuations, especially in the early period. In conclusion, caution should be taken when using 20thCR data to study interdecadal variabilities or long-term trends of the EAWM, especially prior to the 1930s.     

WRF/ARPEGE-CLIMAT simulated climate trends over West Africa

The Weather Regional Forecast (WRF) model is used in this study to downscale low-resolution data over West Africa. First, the performance of the regional model is estimated through contemporary period experiments (1981?C1990) forced by ARPEGE-CLIMAT GCM output (ARPEGE) and ERA-40 re-analyses. Key features of the West African monsoon circulation are reasonably well represented. WRF atmospheric dynamics and summer rainfall compare better to observations than ARPEGE forcing data. WRF simulated moisture transport over West Africa is also consistent in both structure and variability with re-analyses, emphasizing the substantial role played by the West African Monsoon (WAM) and African Easterly Jet (AEJ) flows. The statistical significance of potential climate changes for the A2 scenario between 2032 and 2041 is enhanced in the downscaling from ARPEGE by the regional experiments, with substantial rainfall increases over the Guinea Gulf and eastern Sahel. Future scenario WRF simulations are characterized by higher temperatures over the eastern Tropical Atlantic suggesting more evaporation available locally. This leads to increased moisture advection towards eastern regions of the Guinea Gulf where rainfall is enhanced through a strengthened WAM flow, supporting surface moisture convergence over West Africa. Warmer conditions over both the Mediterranean region and northeastern Sahel could also participate in enhancing moisture transport within the AEJ. The strengthening of the thermal gradient between the Sahara and Guinean regions, particularly pronounced north of 10°N, would support an intensification of the AEJ northwards, given the dependance of the jet to the position/intensity of the meridional gradient. In turn, mid-tropospheric moisture divergence tends to be favored within the AEJ region supporting southwards deflection of moist air and contributing to deep moist convection over the Sahel where late summer rainfall regimes are sustained in the context of the A2 scenario regional projections. In conclusion, WRF proved to be a valuable and efficient tool to help downscaling GCM projections over West Africa, and thus assessing issues such as water resources vulnerability locally.     

初值对中国东部初夏土壤湿度可预报性影响

土壤湿度是影响天气和气候非常重要的因子之一,但目前针对土壤湿度可预报性的研究报道相对较少。该文在对BCC_CSM模式进行了适合的陆面初始化的条件下,设计了两组在中国东部地区采用不同土壤湿度初值的回报试验研究该地区土壤湿度的可预报性及初值对其可预报性影响问题。试验结果表明:BCC_CSM模式在真实的外场强迫下可以模拟出相对合理的土壤湿度;土壤湿度的可预报性在表层约为3候,随着深度的增加,土壤湿度的可预报性持续时间增加,在中层预报性甚至能达到月尺度以上;初值对于土壤湿度的预报存在影响,在表层影响时间约为2~3候,影响时间随着深度增加;浅层土壤湿度受降水的影响较大,浅层土壤湿度变化滞后降水变化约1~2 d,中层土壤湿度变化与降水变化存在5 d左右的滞后关系。     

Regional mean and variability characteristics of temperature and precipitation over Thailand in 1961–2000 by a regional climate model and their evaluation

This study presents the characterization of regional means and variability of temperature and precipitation in 1961–2000 for Thailand using regional climate model RegCM3. Two fine-resolution (20 km) simulations forced by ERA-40 reanalysis data were performed, with the default land covers and with a land-cover modification strategy suggested by a previous work. The strategy was shown to substantially alleviate the problem of systematic underestimation of temperature given by the default simulation, for most part of Thailand in both dry and wet seasons. The degree of bias in precipitation tends to vary differently in every sub-region and season considered. The patterns of seasonal variation of both climatic variables are acceptably reproduced. Simulated 850-hPa winds have general agreement with those of ERA-40, but wind speed is overestimated over the Gulf of Thailand during the dry months, potentially bringing excessive moisture to and causing more rain than actual in the south. Long-term trends in temperature are reasonably predicted by the model while those in observed and simulated precipitations for upper Thailand are in the opposite directions. Apart from the conventional methods used in characterization, spectral decomposition using Kolmogorov–Zurbenko filters was applied to inspect the model’s capability of accounting for variability (here, in terms of variance) in both climatic variables on three temporal scales (short term, seasonal, and long term). The model was found to closely estimate the total variances in the original time series and fairly predict the relative variance contributions on all temporal scales. The latter finding is in line with the results from an additional spectral coherence analysis. Overall, the model was shown to be acceptably adequate for use in support of further climate studies for Thailand, and its evident strength is the capability of reproducing seasonal characteristics and, to a lesser degree, trends.     

Climate variability attributable to terrestrial and oceanic forcing in the NCAR CAM3-CLM3 Models

Based on numerical experiments using the NCAR CAM3-CLM3 models, this paper examines the impact of soil moisture, vegetation, and sea surface temperature (SST) on the inter-annual variability of climate over land. For each element, two experiments are carried out, with the inter-annual variability preserved in one experiment and eliminated in the other. Differences in the standard deviation of the precipitation and air temperature at the inter-annual time scale are used to quantify the impacts from soil moisture dynamics, vegetation dynamics, and oceanic forcing. The impact of oceanic forcing is mainly limited to the Tropics, with the strongest signal in the equatorial zone, and moisture convergence is the key linkage between SST forcing and tropical precipitation. Soil moisture plays a significant role in climate variability during the rainy seasons of all semi-arid regions (which is consistent with many previous studies), and during the dry seasons of the humid Amazon. Evapotranspiration is identified as the main mechanism linking precipitation variability to soil moisture. Amazon is the only region where vegetation dynamics has a significant influence on precipitation variability. However, the impact of vegetation dynamics on temperature is strong over the US Great Plains in all four seasons and in the Amazon region during the dry and dry-to-wet transition seasons.     

中国土壤湿度的分布与变化 I. 多种资料间的比较

土壤湿度是影响气候的重要因子之一, 但观测资料的欠缺制约着该领域研究工作的开展。本文汇总了目前国际上运用较为广泛的四套土壤湿度资料: ERA40和NCEP/NCAR再分析资料、全球土壤湿度计划资料(GSWP2)、以及NCAR最近完成的利用观测资料强迫“通用陆面模式”CLM所产生的土壤湿度资料。在此基础上, 利用中国区域观测的19年 (1981～1999年) 的土壤湿度和13年 (1992～2004年) 的土壤相对湿度资料, 对四套资料在中国区域的可靠性进行了分析和比较, 主要结论如下: 四套资料基本揭示出土壤湿度的空间分布, GSWP2揭示了四套资料最多的共性, 即东北、 华南湿, 华北、 西北干, 土壤湿度基本由西北向东北和东南呈梯度增加的特征; GSWP2较好地描述了土壤湿度的季节循环; ERA40土壤湿度的年际变化与观测相关最好; 观测资料和四套资料都表明前期降水会增加土壤湿度, 但土壤湿度异常对后期降水的影响则不显著; 气温与土壤湿度的关系较复杂, 不同的区域有不同的特征。     

中国不同气候区土壤湿度特征及其气候响应

为获得中国不同气候区各层深度土壤湿度变化特征及其对气候变化的响应,利用中国区域台站观测土壤湿度资料、降水及气温资料,采用趋势、相关性分析及突变检验等方法,讨论了东北、河套、江淮区域1981~1999年不同深度土壤湿度变化特征及其对气温、降水的响应。结果表明:东北、江淮地区为土壤湿度高值区,河套地区为土壤湿度低值区,土壤湿度由浅层至深层呈上升趋势;东北、河套地区降水和土壤湿度变化呈正相关,江淮地区降水和土壤湿度呈负相关;东北、河套地区气温和土壤湿度变化呈负相关,江淮地区气温与土壤湿度呈正相关关系。土壤湿度对降水的响应比对气温变化的响应更加显著。      

Validation of ECMWF and NCEP–NCAR Reanalysis Data in Antarctica

The European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF) Re-Analysis (ERA-40) and the National Centers for Environmental Prediction-National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCEP-NCAR) ECMWF (ERA-40) and NCEP-NCAR reanalysis data were compared with Antarctic station observations, including surface-layer and upper-layer atmospheric observations, on intraseasonal and interannual timescales. At the interannual timescale, atmospheric pressure at different height levels in the ERA-40 data are in better agre...