Evaluating historical simulations of CMIP5 GCMs for key climatic variables in Zhejiang Province,China

Assessing the regional impact of climate change on agriculture, hydrology, and forests is vital for sustainable management. Trustworthy projections of climate change are needed to support these assessments. In this paper, 18 global climate models (GCMs) from the fifth phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) are evaluated for their ability to simulate regional climate change in Zhejiang Province, Southeast China. Simple graphical approaches and three indices are used to evaluate the performance of six key climatic variables during simulations from 1971 to 2000. These variables include maximum and minimum air temperature, precipitation, wind speed, solar radiation, and relative humidity. These variables are of great importance to researchers and decision makers in climate change impact studies and developing adaptation strategies. This study found that most GCMs failed to reproduce the observed spatial patterns, due to insufficient resolution. However, the seasonal variations of the six variables are simulated well by most GCMs. Maximum and minimum air temperatures are simulated well on monthly, seasonal, and yearly scales. Solar radiation is reasonably simulated on monthly, seasonal, and yearly scales. Compared to air temperature and solar radiation, it was found that precipitation, wind speed, and relative humidity can only be simulated well at seasonal and yearly scales. Wind speed was the variable with the poorest simulation results across all GCMs.     

河西走廊太阳辐射时空分布特征及太阳能资源评估研究

利用1961—2020年河西走廊3个太阳辐射站和19个气象站资料,推算河西走廊各站太阳总辐射量,得出该地区太阳总辐射空间分布和时间变化特征,进一步采用相关系数法分析了太阳总辐射的气候影响因素。结果表明：(1)太阳总辐射空间分布在年及春、夏、秋季呈西北向东南递减,冬季呈西北向东南增加。(2)太阳总辐射在月际和季节分布上呈单峰型,5月最强,12月最弱,夏季最强,冬季最弱。(3)年太阳总辐射呈增加趋势,其线型倾向率为6.3 MJ/(m²·10 a),其中夏、秋、冬季总辐射呈减少趋势,夏季下降最明显,而春季呈明显增加趋势。(4)年、季总辐射都表现出2～3、5～6 a短周期及8～10 a长周期振荡。(5)太阳总辐射量与相对湿度、降水量、总云量、低云量及浮尘、扬沙、沙尘暴日数总体呈负相关,与气温和日照时数呈正相关。(6)河西走廊太阳能资源丰富程度和稳定度表现一致,都呈现为由西北向东南递减的趋势,资源相对丰富的地区稳定度也相对较高。     

基于CERES/Aqua卫星资料的新疆地面短波向下辐射时空分布特征

利用CERES SSF Aqua MODIS Edition 3A数据对新疆地区2003-2015年的13时至17时的地面短波向下辐射变化进行研究,得到了新疆地区近13年的地面短波向下辐射时空分布特征。可以发现,该地区地面短波向下辐射从东南向西北随着纬度的增加而逐渐减少,从春季到冬季,地面短波向下辐射逐渐地由经向分布向纬向分布转变,秋季变化幅度为全年最大,夏季最小。年变化呈现单峰趋势,接近正态分布,最大值出现在2004年5月13时。在日变化中,13时最大。新疆地区近13年整体来说,地面地面短波向下辐射呈现下降趋势,以13.3 W?m-2/10a的速率减小。春季变化呈现增大趋势,其余各季均为减小趋势。     

西双版纳勐仑地区40余年气候变化

利用设置在西双版纳自然保护区的勐仑气象站40余年（1959－2000年）的资料，统计分析勐仑地区气候变化特征。结果表明，40余年来年平均气温呈上升趋势，上升率0.202℃／10年，升温主要是从20世纪80年代中期开始，其中干热季（3－4月）升温最为显著。不同年代，平均最高气温与最低气温上升率有所不同。年降水量从50年代到80年代以53.0mm/10年速度下降，80年代末期降水量达到历史最低值，90年代降水量显著回升。相对湿度为明显下降趋势，干热季下降显著。日照时数变化稍复杂，有近似二次曲线的变化。勐仑地区气候变化的原因，主要是在大气候变化背景下，植被覆盖率变化所致。     

Interrelationship of rainfall,temperature and reference evapotranspiration trends and their net response to the climate change in Central India

The monthly rainfall data from 1901 to 2011 and maximum and minimum temperature data from 1901 to 2005 are used along with the reference evapotranspiration (ET₀) to analyze the climate trend of 45 stations of Madhya Pradesh. ET₀ is calculated by the Hargreaves method from 1901 to 2005 and the computed data is then used for trend analysis. The temporal variation and the spatial distribution of trend are studied for seasonal and annual series with the Mann-Kendall (MK) test and Sen’s estimator of slope. The percentage of change is used to find the rate of change in 111 years (rainfall) and 105 years (temperatures and ET₀). Interrelationships among these variables are analyzed to see the dependency of one variable on the other. The results indicate a decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures and ET₀ trend. A similar pattern is noticeable in all seasons except for monsoon season in temperature and ET₀ trend analysis. The highest increase of temperature is noticed during post-monsoon and winter. Rainfall shows a notable decrease in the monsoon season. The entire state of Madhya Pradesh is considered as a single unit, and the calculation of overall net change in the amount of the rainfall, temperatures (maximum and minimum) and ET₀ is done to estimate the total loss or gain in monthly, seasonal and annual series. The results show net loss or deficit in the amount of rainfall and the net gain or excess in the temperature and ET₀ amount.     

Trends, stability and stress in the Colombian Central Andes

Mountain ecosystems have been projected to experience faster rates of warming than surrounding lowlands. These changes in climatic conditions could have significant impacts on high-altitude Andean environments, affecting the quality and magnitude of their economic and environmental services. Even though long-term data in these regions are limited, it is important to identify any discernible long-term trends in local climatic conditions. Time series of several variables were analyzed to detect statistically significant long-term linear trends that occurred over recent years in a páramo ecosystem of the Colombian Central Andes. Records included cloud characteristics, sunshine, rainfall, minimum and maximum temperatures, diurnal temperature range, and relative humidity. Conditions of atmospheric stability were also explored. Total sunshine exhibited decreasing trends ranging from ?3.7 to ?8.5% per decade at altitudes around the pluviometric optimum. The strongest changes in sunshine occurred during the December-January-February season. Mean relative humidity observed at altitudes around and below this threshold showed increasing trends of +0.6 to +0.7% per decade. Annual rainfall and mean relative humidity above the optimum showed decreasing trends ranging from ?7 to ?11% per decade and from ?1.5 to ?3.6% per decade, respectively. Minimum temperatures on the coldest days and maximum temperatures on the warmest days exhibited increasing trends at all altitudes ranging from +0.1 to +0.6, and from +0.2 to +1.1°C per decade, respectively. Increases in minimum and maximum temperatures at higher altitudes were significantly greater than those observed in average at lower altitudes. The strongest changes in minimum temperatures, particularly, occurred during the December–January–February and June–July–August dry seasons. All these changes suggest that atmospheric conditions in the area are shifting from statically unstable conditions to conditionally unstable or statically stable conditions. Observed historical trends indicate that climate impacts and other human activities have stressed these unique and fragile environments.     

Assessing the impact of climate changes on the potential yields of maize and paddy rice in Northeast China by 2050

Northeast China is the main crop production region in China, and future climate change will directly impact crop potential yields, so exploring crop potential yields under future climate scenarios in Northeast China is extremely critical for ensuring future food security. Here, this study projected the climate changes using 12 general circulation models (GCMs) under two moderate Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 6.0) from 2015 to 2050. Then, based on the Global Agro-ecological Zones (GAEZ) model, we explored the effect of climate change on the potential yields of maize and paddy rice in Northeast China during 2015–2050. The annual relative humidity increased almost throughout the Northeast China under two RCPs. The annual precipitation increased more than 400 mm in some west, east, and south areas under RCP 4.5, but decreased slightly in some areas under RCP 6.0. The annual wind speed increased over 2 m/s in the west region. The annual net solar radiation changes varied significantly with latitude, but the changes of annual maximum temperature and minimum temperature were closely related to the terrain. Under RCP 4.5, the average maize potential yield increased by 34.31% under the influence of climate changes from 2015 to 2050. The average rice potential yield increased by 16.82% from 2015 to 2050. Under RCP 6.0, the average maize and rice potential yields increased by 25.65% and 6.34% respectively. The changes of maize potential yields were positively correlated with the changes of precipitation, wind speed, and net solar radiation (the correlation coefficients were > 0.2), and negatively correlated with the changes of relative humidity, minimum and maximum temperature under two RCPs. The changes of rice potential yields were positively correlated with the changes of precipitation (correlation coefficient = 0.15) under RCP 4.5. Under RCP 6.0, it had a slight positive correlation with net solar radiation, relative humidity, and wind speed.     

Temporal and Spatial Trends of Temperature Patterns in Israel

Summary  Daily maximum and minimum temperatures from 40 stations in Israel were analyzed to detect long-term trends and changes in temporal and spatial distribution patterns during the second half of the 20th Century. The trend analysis, reveals a rather complex changing pattern, with a significant decreasing trend of both the daily maximum and minimum temperature, during the cool season, and an increasing trend during the warm season. On an annual basis, there seems to be almost no temporal trends in minimum and maximum temperatures since the changes in winter and summer show an opposite tendencey. Received November 30, 1998 Revised May 27, 1999     

陕西省近40年最高最低温度变化

利用陕西省1961~2002年的实测资料,在剔除城市热岛效应对气候变化趋势的可能影响之后,使用自然正交函数展开,得到冬、春、夏、秋4季最高、最低温度第1特征向量。第1特征向量均为正值,且方差贡献均超过60%,所对应的时间系数能代表最高、最低温度的时空变化。由此研究了陕西省最高温度、最低温度的时空变化趋势特点:冬、春、夏、秋4季,无论最高、最低温度1980年以后均呈增温趋势,这种变化趋势的中心区域普遍在关中中、西部和渭北;而近10多年来温度日较差除秋季外,有增大的趋势,这可能主要是由于云量的减少所致。     

起伏地形下浙江省散射辐射时空分异规律模拟

结合影响起伏地形下太阳散射辐射的天空因素与地面因素,通过基于数字高程模型（DEM）数据的起伏地形下天文辐射模型和地形开阔度模型,综合考虑地面因素对散射辐射的影响;基于常规地面气象站观测资料建立的水平面散射辐射模型,考虑天空因素对散射辐射的影响;建立了起伏地形下浙江省散射辐射分布式估算模型;逐月计算了浙江省散射辐射（100m×100m）的空间分布。结果表明：散射分量分布与地理地形因子、季风影响、大气透明程度有关,由高纬向低纬逐渐增加;季节分布特点为,夏季〉春季〉秋季〉冬季;坡度、坡向对散射辐射的分布影响小,但辐射值与开阔度呈正相关,各季辐射最大值分布在开阔度大处,最小值在开阔度最小处,不同季节有所伸缩。计算结果可以为气候变化和环境资源研究提供基础数据。     

Evaluation of Hydrologically Relevant PCM Climate Variables and Large-Scale Variability over the Continental U.S.

The ability of the Parallel Climate Model (PCM) to reproduce the mean and variability of hydrologically relevant climate variables was evaluated by comparing PCM historical climate runs with observations over temporal scales from sub-daily to annual. The domain was the continental U.S, and the model spatial resolution was T42 (about 2.8 degrees latitude by longitude). The climate variables evaluated include precipitation, surface air temperature, net surface solar radiation, soil moisture, and snow water equivalent. The results show that PCM has a winter dry bias in the Pacific Northwest and a summer wet bias in the central plains. The diurnal precipitation variation in summer is much stronger than observed, with an afternoon maximum in summer precipitation over much of the U.S. interior, in contrast with an observed nocturnal maximum in parts of the interior. PCM has a cold bias in annual mean temperature over most of the U.S., with deviations as large as ?8 K. The PCM daily temperature range is lower than observed, especiallyin the central U.S. PCM generally overestimates the net solar radiation over most of the U.S, although the diurnal cycle is simulated well in spring, summer and winter. In autumn PCM has a pronounced noontime peak in solar radiation that differs by 5–10% from observations. PCM'ssimulated soil moisture is less variable than that of a sophisticated land-surface hydrology model, especially in the interior of the country. PCM simulates the wetter conditions over the southeastern U.S. and California during warm (El Niño) events, but shifts the drier conditions in the PacificNorthwest northward and underestimates their magnitude. The temperature response to the North Pacific Oscillation is generally captured by PCM, but the amplitude of this response is overestimated by a factor of about two.     

A Climate Change Database for Biological Assessments in the Southeastern United States: Development and Case Study

A regional database containing historical time series and climate change scenarios for the Southeastern United States was developed for the U.S.D.A. Forest Service Southern Global Change Program (SGCP). Daily historical values of maximum temperature, minimum temperature and precipitation and empirically derived estimates of vapor pressure deficit and solar radiation across a uniform 1° latitude × 1° longitude grid were obtained. Climate change scenarios of temperature, precipitation, vapor pressure deficit and solar radiation were generated using semi-empirical techniques which combined historical time series and simulation field summaries from GISS, GFDL, OSU and UKMO General Circulation Model (GCM) experiments. An internally consistent 1° latitude × 1° longitude climate change scenario database was produced in which vapor pressure deficit and solar radiation conditions were driven by the GCM temperature projections, but were not constrained to agree with GCM calculated radiation and humidity fields. Some of the unique characteristics of the database were illustrated through a case study featuring growing season and annual potential evapotranspiration (ET_p) estimates. Overall, the unconstrained scenarios produced smaller median ET_p changes from historical baseline conditions, with a smaller range of outcomes than those driven by GCM-directed scenarios. Collectively, the range of annual and growing season ET changes from baseline estimates in response to the unconstrained climate scenarios was +10% to +40%. No outlier responses were identified. ET_p changes driven by GCM-directed (constrained) UKMO radiation and humidity scenarios were on the order of +100%, resulting in the identification of some ET_p responses as statistical outliers. These response differences were attributed to differences between the constrained and unconstrained humidity scenarios.     

1961～2013年中国蒸发皿蒸发量时空分布特征及其影响因素

分析了1961～2013年中国1302个台站的蒸发皿蒸发量（Pan Evaporation,PE）的时空分布特征并探讨了影响PE变化的主要气候因子。结果表明:站点平均PE在全年和四季都呈明显下降趋势,且在1978年发生了突变。PE在华北平原、新疆、广东、广西及海南等地呈现出显著的下降趋势,而在福建、浙江和贵州等地为显著上升的趋势。用年平均PE距平场经验正交函数做经验正交函数（EOF）分解得到:在第一模态（EOF1）中,1981年时间系数由负转正,EOF1的空间模态与PE的变化有较好的一致性;第二模态（EOF2）中PE距平呈南北反向分布,2002年以后PE在北方减小,在南方增大。通过计算PE与近地面5个气象因子（降水、气温、风速、湿度、日照时数）的偏相关系数后发现:除了降水外,其余4个因子都和PE有很好的相关性。风速与PE为显著正相关,且相关系数最大的区域与EOF1中PE变率最大的区域吻合;相对湿度与PE为显著负相关;PE与气温的相关系数都为正值,且相关系数最大的区域对应于PE显著增加的地区,而与日照时数的相关系数在除春季以外的其他季节都大于0.6。进一步分析发现,风速和日照时数与PE的关系受两个气象因子的线性趋势影响较大,以此推断出PE的下降趋势应该很大程度是受风速和日照时数减小的影响。此外,干旱发生时,PE明显偏大,降水、气温、湿度和日照时数的变化也都对PE增大有明显的贡献,PE对干旱有很好的指示作用。     

近50年我国西部地区气象要素的变化特征

利用1951-2000年全国194站地面观测资料和高空观测资料,对近50年我国西部地区的气候变化特征进行分析。结果表明:从20世纪70年代开始,我国西部地区年平均气温呈上升趋势,其中河套区和新疆区气温上升最为明显,其次为青藏高原区和河西区,西南区气温增幅最不明显,地表温度变化与气温的变化基本同步,但地温变化要比气温变化更加剧烈一些。西南区的地温从70年代中期开始回升,但始终未达到50年代初期的水平,因此从线性变化上表现为下降趋势。西部地区除了河套区外,其他4个区的年平均降水量均增加,增加最明显的是新疆区和青藏高原区。我国整个西部地区年平均总云量和低云量均呈线性减少趋势,减少最明显的是西南区和河套区。在辐射变化上,我国西部总辐射呈减少趋势,青藏高原区减少最多;西南区的散射辐射呈增加趋势,其他4个区减少,其中新疆区和青藏高原区散射辐射减幅明显。散射辐射的大小与天空中云量和气溶胶含量的多少成正比,西南区散射辐射呈增加趋势,而总云量和低云量呈下降趋势,可以推测是气溶胶含量增加导致了散射辐射的增加。     

中国不同时间尺度地表太阳总辐射估算研究

利用全国95个气象站点逐日地表太阳总辐射和日照时数资料,通过最小二乘法拟合回归建立地表太阳总辐射气候学计算模型。通过对比分析以日值和月值为起点的地表太阳总辐射计算模型的精度,确定了全国不同省份和区域的不同时间尺度（月、季节、生长季和年）地表太阳总辐射计算模型,并探讨了经验系数a、b值的分布及变化特征。结果表明,以日值和月值为起点建立的月、四季、生长季和年地表太阳总辐射计算模型精度无显著性差异,相对误差均低于8.5%,但以日值为起点的计算模型a、b值变异性更小。在以日值为起点建立计算模型的前提下,全国各地a、b值自西北部向南部减小,且从四季到生长季再到年尺度,随着时间尺度增大,a、b值振幅减小。根据不同省份年地表太阳总辐射计算模型经验系数a、b值,全国可划分为新甘蒙地区、青藏高原地区和中东部地区3个区域,分别确定了每个区域四季、生长季和年尺度下地表太阳总辐射计算模型。各区域不同时间尺度地表太阳总辐射计算模型均通过了显著性检验（p<0.01）,其中青藏高原地区和新甘蒙地区模型相对误差低于8.0%,模拟精度较高。     

近46a虎林市气候变化的趋势分析

利用累积距平法和线性趋势分析法对虎林市1961～2006年的年、季平均气温、降水和相对湿度的长期变化特征进行分析,结果表明：近46a来虎林市的气候表现出向暖干型发展的趋势：年和季平均气温均呈上升趋势,各季气温上升幅度略有不同;年降水量有略微增加趋势,相对湿度有略微减小趋势。     

云南气候舒适度分布和变化特征及未来变化趋势预估

文章使用云南1961—2015年观测气象资料和RegCM4区域气候模式模拟的RCP4.5和RCP8.5情景下2016—2099年气候变化预估资料,计算了云南逐日气候舒适度指数,采用线性趋势和通径分析等方法分析了云南近55年气候舒适度的时空演变特征和变化成因,最后对未来变化趋势作了预估。结果显示：(1)云南观测资料多年平均值舒适日数最多,占全年的55%,南多北少,夏季最多;寒冷日数次多,占全年的23%,北多南少,冬季最多;冷日数比寒冷日数稍少,占全年的20%;热日数仅占全年的1%,闷热日数多年平均值为零。(2) 1961—2015年寒冷(舒适)日数年际和空间变化都呈明显的减少(增加)趋势,冷和热日数没有明显的变化趋势,闷热日数没有变化。(3)气温是云南气候舒适度各等级日数变化的主要因素,其次是风速,相对湿度只在温度高的情况下影响明显。(4) RCP4.5和RCP8.5两种情景下,2016—2099年云南寒冷(舒适)日数年际和空间变化都是减少(增加)的趋势;冷日数年变化是减少的趋势,空间变化为西北部增加;热日数只在RCP8.5情景下增加明显,主要是南部地区增加。     

1961~2010年黄河中下游地区24节气气候变化特征分析

24节气是我国古代劳动人民的独特创造。全面掌握"24节气"的气候变化规律,不但有利于指导农事生产,提高气象服务质量和水平,而且在为人类预防和治疗疾病方面也有重要意义。在全球变暖的气候背景下,统计分析了1961~2010年黄河中下游地区24节气的气温、湿度、风速等6个气象要素的变化特征,得到以下结论:黄河中下游地区随节气变换气候变化显著,大暑、小暑节气高温高湿,小寒、大寒节气寒冷干燥,清明节气寒温反复大风将至,霜降节气天气渐凉秋燥加剧等。50年内,春季型节气(平均、最高、最低)气温显著升高,冬季型节气最低气温升高显著。气压随节气变化特征与气温大致相反,夏、秋季节气有升压趋势。相对湿度与降水均呈减少趋势,以秋季型节气减小趋势最明显。春季风速最大,夏、秋季风速最小,所有节气风速均呈减小趋势,冬夏季节气日照时间呈缩短趋势。     

Spatial asymmetry of temperature trends over India and possible role of aerosols

Dissimilarities in temperature trends in space and time over the Indian region have been examined to look for signatures of aerosols’ influence. Separate temperature time series for North and South India were constructed for dry (November–May) and wet (June–October) seasons. Temperature trend for the entire period 1901–2007 and different subperiods of 1901–1950, 1951–1990, 1971–2007, and 1991–2007 have been examined to isolate the aerosol and other greenhouse gas influences on temperatures. Maximum (daytime) temperatures during dry season corresponding to North and South India show significant warming trend of 0.8 and 1.0?°C per hundred years during the period 1901–2007, while minimum temperature shows nebulous trend of 0.2 and 0.3?°C per hundred years over North and South India, respectively. During the wet season, maximum temperature shows nearly half of dry season maximum temperature warming trend. However, asymmetry is observed in dry season maximum temperature trend during post-industrial period 1951–1990 wherein the North/South India shows decreasing/increasing trends, while during the recent period 1991–2007 trends are uniformly positive for both the regions. Spatial and temporal asymmetry in observed trends clearly point to the role of aerosols in lowering temperature trends over northern India. Atmospheric aerosols could cause a negative climate forcing that can modulate the regional surface temperature trends in a significant way. As this forcing acts differentially on day and night temperatures, trends in diurnal temperature range (DTR) provide a direct assessment of impacts of aerosols on temperature trends. Time series of diurnal temperature range for dry and wet seasons have been examined separately for North and South India. Over North India, the DTR for dry season has increased gradually during the period 1901–1970 and thereafter showed decreasing trend, while trends in temperature range over Southern India were almost opposite in phase with North India. The aerosol and greenhouse gases seem to play an important role in the spatial and temporal variability of temperature range over India.