Comparison of Measured and Numerically Simulated Turbulence Statistics in a Convective Boundary Layer Over Complex Terrain

The Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model can be used to simulate atmospheric processes ranging from quasi-global to tens of m in scale. Here we employ large-eddy simulation (LES) using the WRF model, with the LES-domain nested within a mesoscale WRF model domain with grid spacing decreasing from 12.15 km (mesoscale) to 0.03 km (LES). We simulate real-world conditions in the convective planetary boundary layer over an area of complex terrain. The WRF-LES model results are evaluated against observations collected during the US Department of Energy-supported Columbia Basin Wind Energy Study. Comparison of the first- and second-order moments, turbulence spectrum, and probability density function of wind speed shows good agreement between the simulations and observations. One key result is to demonstrate that a systematic methodology needs to be applied to select the grid spacing and refinement ratio used between domains, to avoid having a grid resolution that falls in the grey zone and to minimize artefacts in the WRF-LES model solutions. Furthermore, the WRF-LES model variables show large variability in space and time caused by the complex topography in the LES domain. Analyses of WRF-LES model results show that the flow structures, such as roll vortices and convective cells, vary depending on both the location and time of day as well as the distance from the inflow boundaries.     

Numerical Study of Winter Urban Boundary Layer Structure over Beijing Area

1. Introduction The urban canopy layer (UCL) (Roth, 2000) is defined as a layer in the vertical structure of urban boundary layer (UBL) ranging from the surface to the top of buildings. The urban infrastructures within UCL, such as buildings with different heights, the het- erogeneity of urban land cover and the anthropogenic activity, all directly influence the thermal and dynam- ical structures of atmosphere and net radiation budget at the surface, meanwhile, affect the structure of ur- …     

城市大气边界层的数值研究

本文利用能量闭合的二维非线性、非定常模式,结合地面热量平衡方程,研究了城市热岛和城市热岛环流以及其它相关的城市边界层参量的发展演变规律;同时探讨了在城市污染面源的情况下,污染物的扩散、输送问题.模拟结果得到了天津市城市热岛观测资料的证实.     

Numerical Study of the Neutral Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Complex Terrain

We evaluate the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations available as commercial computational fluid dynamics code for the simulation of a neutral atmospheric boundary layer and attempt to define a proper numerical simulation procedure. Four turbulence models, including two-equation and Reynolds stress models, were evaluated together with two near-wall models. Mesh and map digitization sensitivity tests were also performed. The simulations were compared to experimental field data from the Askervein Hill in Scotland. The results show that the simulations performed with ANSYS CFX 12.1 on a proper mesh and topological map with a Reynolds stress turbulence model provided the best wind-speed predictions when compared to the experimental results.     

Statistics of Turbulence in the Stable Boundary Layer Affected by Gravity Waves

In order to investigate effects of interactions between turbulence and gravity waves in the stable boundary layer on similarity theory relationships, we re-examined a dataset, collected during three April nights in 1978 and in 1980 on the 300-m tower of the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory (BAO). The BAO site, located in Erie, Colorado, USA, 30 km east of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, has been known for the frequent detection of wave activities. The considered profiles of turbulent fluxes and variances were normalized by two local, gradient-based scaling systems, and subsequently compared with similarity functions of the Richardson number, obtained based on data with no influence of gravity currents and topographical factors. The first scaling system was based on local values of the vertical velocity variance $\sigma _\mathrm{w}$ and the Brunt–Väisäla frequency $ N,$ while the second one was based on the temperature variance $\sigma _{\theta }$ and $N.$ Analysis showed some departures from the similarity functions (obtained for data with virtually no influence of mesoscale motions); nonetheless the overall dependency of dimensionless moments on the Richardson number was maintained.     

城市建筑物对边界层结构影响的数值试验研究

在区域边界层模式的数值模拟中引入建筑物的影响,与实际观测的对比表明,模拟结果能较好地体现建筑物对城市风场的影响,提高了模拟性能。本研究根据城市形态特征,设计不同建筑物高度和密度的敏感性试验,结果表明:建筑物一般会使城市地区风速减小,风速最大可减小1.6 m/s,易引起低层气流的辐合。湍流动能中的机械产生作用增加,湍流交换加强,大气层结的不稳定性增大,混合层高度增加。地表和大气之间动量交换被削弱;日间热量交换减弱,夜间热量交换增强。这些变化表明,建筑物对城市气流及边界层结构的影响十分明显,尤其在风速较大的时候。     

用大涡模式研究对流边界层湍流

利用三维对流边界层的大涡模拟模式研究对流边界层湍流统计特征量,模拟结果与前人的同类模拟工作及实验观测结果相比较,得到了一致的结论.       

Different Turbulent Regimes and Vertical Turbulence Structures of the Urban Nocturnal Stable Boundary Layer

Turbulence in the nocturnal boundary layer(NBL) is still not well characterized, especially over complex underlying surfaces. Herein, gradient tower data and eddy covariance data collected by the Beijing 325-m tower were used to better understand the differentiating characteristics of turbulence regimes and vertical turbulence structure of urban the NBL. As for heights above the urban canopy layer(UCL), the relationship between turbulence velocity scale(V_TKE) and wind speed(V) was con...     

A Model of the Planetary Boundary Layer Over a Snow Surface

A model of the planetary boundary layer over a snow surface has been developed. It contains the vertical heat exchange processes due to radiation, conduction, and atmospheric turbulence. Parametrization of the boundary layer is based on similarity functions developed by Hoffert and Sud (1976), which involve a dimensionless variable, ζ, dependent on boundary-layer height and a localized Monin-Obukhov length. The model also contains the atmospheric surface layer and the snowpack itself, where snowmelt and snow evaporation are calculated. The results indicate a strong dependence of surface temperatures, especially at night, on the bursts of turbulence which result from the frictional damping of surface-layer winds during periods of high stability, as described by Businger (1973). The model also shows the cooling and drying effect of the snow on the atmosphere, which may be the mechanism for air mass transformation in sub-Arctic regions.     

重庆城市热岛环流结构和湍流特征的数值模拟

利用中尺度模式WRF（V3.9）对2016年8月17～18日重庆一次城市热岛环流个例进行了数值模拟，探讨了山地城市热岛环流的三维结构和演变特征，分析了热岛环流期间湍流动能和各项湍流通量的特征。结果表明:15:00（北京时，下同）乡村风开始出现，随着热岛强度增强乡村风增大，18:00热岛环流结构最显著，次日02:00热岛环流结构被破坏，仅低层存在微弱的乡村风。其中，重庆市城市热岛环流最强时，水平尺度约城市尺度的1.5～2倍，垂直厚度约1.3 km，水平风速约2～4 m s?1，最大上升速度约0.5 m s?1。受地形、河流以及背景风的影响，环流呈现非对称的结构，且强度较弱。湍流特征分析结果表明，城市区域的湍流动能明显大于其它区域。此外，城市热岛环流通过湍流运动将郊区的水汽输向城市；高层湍流动量补充边界层中因热岛环流发展而造成的动量耗散。     

Turbulence Characteristics of the Stable Boundary Layer Over a Mid-Latitude Glacier. Part I: A Combination of Katabatic and Large-Scale Forcing

Profile and eddy-correlation (heights of 4 and 10 m) measurements performed on the Pasterze glacier (Austria) are used to study the characteristics of the stable boundary layer under conditions of katabatic and large-scale forcing. We consider cases where large-scale forcing results in a downslope (or following) ambient wind. The analysis of averaged spectra and cospectra reveals low frequency perturbations that have a large influence on the variances of temperature and horizontal wind components and also alter the cospectra of momentum and sensible heat flux. Only the spectrum of the vertical wind speed is comparable to universal spectra. The low frequency perturbations occur as brief intermittent events and result in downward entrainment of ambient air thereby producing enhanced downward sensible heat fluxes and downward as well as upward momentum fluxes with various magnitudes and timescales. After the variances were high pass filtered, the normalised standard deviations of wind speed and temperature compare favourably to findings in the literature within the range 0>z/L>0.5. For larger z/L they deviate as a result of an increased influence from low frequency perturbations and thus non-stationarity. In line with this, the turbulent kinetic energy budget (at 4 m height) indicates that production (shear) is in balance with destruction (buoyancy and dissipation) within the range 0>z/L>0.3. Non-dimensional gradients of wind speed within the range 0>z/L>0.3 have a slope of about 3.5. The scatter for the dimensionless temperature gradient is quite large, and the slope is comparable to that for wind speed gradients. For z/L>0.3 the imbalance in the turbulent kinetic energy budget grows and non-dimensional gradients for wind speed and temperature deviate considerably from accepted values as a result of increased non-stationarity. Average roughness lengths for momentum and sensible heat flux derived from wind speed and temperature profiles are respectively 1 × 10^-3 m and 6 × 10^-5 m, consistent with the literature. The ratio (z_0h/z_0m) compares to those predicted by surface renewal models. A variation of this ratio with the roughness Reynolds number is not indicated by our data.     

沙漠-绿洲大气边界层结构的数值模拟

利用美国NCAR新版中尺度MM5V3．6非静力平衡模式,采用三重嵌套的模拟方法,模拟研究了沙漠绿洲的环流及边界层特征。结果表明：在没有西风气流背景的影响下,绿洲沙漠环流和大气边界层结构是对称的。沙漠绿洲改变了原有沙漠地区环流结构及温、湿场的分布,绿洲上空大气下沉,沙漠上空大气上升,从而产生了绿洲上空大气冷干,沙漠上空大气暖湿的边界层特征。绿洲边缘形成了由干到湿的强湿度梯度带围绕着绿洲,起到了保护绿洲的作用。在有西风背景气流的影响下,绿洲沙漠环流和大气边界层结构是非对称的。但是,西风背景气流的存在可以破坏绿洲系统对称的环流结构,不利于绿洲系统的稳定发展。     

冷空气爆发时陆地边界层的数值模拟

本文建立了一个三维中尺度模式,分别模拟了平坦地形及规则山地情形下冷空气爆发过程,并模拟了无冷空气时天气演变过程作为比较.模拟结果合理地给出了冷空气爆发后边界层内诸要素的变化规律,如大风的出现、风向的改变、动量通量的增大、气压的升高等.     

城镇规划布局对边界层结构影响的数值试验

利用南京大学城市尺度边界层模式(UBLM),对方圆20 km的一个小城镇,以100 m水平格距进行了城市气象环境和边界层结构的数值模拟。结果表明,这种规模的小城镇,其边界层气象场分布与大城市最明显的差异就是城乡温差很小,不论白天还是晚上只有0.1~0.2℃的量值,基本不构成城市热岛现象。在日间层结不稳定情况下,主城区、郊区及居民区三类不同下垫面上的湍能廓线、位温廓线存在较大差异;而在夜间稳定情况下,这些要素的廓线分布几乎显现不出下垫面影响的差异。(1)局部下垫面的变化对模拟域内夜间气象环境的影响较小,差异主要显现在日间,且风速分布的变化强于温度变化。(2)当预留地建成稀疏居民区或稠密主城区时,在试验区下风方向的原有城市下垫面上会有气温升高、水平风速减小,垂直速度增大的现象;而当预留地建成平坦机场或水域时,城市下垫面上会有降温、水平风速增大、垂直速度减小的现象。(3)水域对城市气象环境变化的影响最大,它的存在或扩大会导致下风方向城市湍能、湍流扩散系数的明显减小。(4)备用地变成其它几种下垫面类型都对城市气象环境存在一定影响,但是其影响的程度比变成水域带来的影响程度都要小很多。     

On the Impact of Anthropogenic Heat Fluxes on the Urban Boundary Layer: A Two-Dimensional Numerical Study

The heat generated in buildings and the manner in which this heat is exchanged with the ambient environment can play an important role in urban climate. Recent studies have shown that anthropogenic heat from air-conditioning facilities can increase the exterior ambient temperature and should be taken into account for a more complete urban heat island (UHI) mitigation study. For this purpose, the first part of the present work is focused on the coupling of a new building energy model (BEM) and an urban canopy parameterisation (UCP). The new scheme is implemented in a finite volume mesoscale model (MM) and tested in a two-dimensional (2D) configuration of a city over flat terrain. A sensitivity study is performed with respect to different parameters in order to test the simulation system and enhance the understanding of the possible impacts of the BEM on the exterior microclimate.     

A Case Study of Turbulence in the Nocturnal Boundary Layer During the Indian Summer Monsoon

Observations from the Cloud-Aerosol Interaction and Precipitation Enhancement Experiment-Integrated Ground Observation Campaign (CAIPEEX-IGOC) provide a rare opportunity to investigate nocturnal atmospheric surface-layer processes and surface-layer turbulent characteristics associated with the low-level jet (LLJ). Here, an observational case study of the nocturnal boundary layer is presented during the peak monsoon season over Peninsular India using data collected over a single night representative of the synoptic conditions of the Indian summer monsoon. Datasets based on Doppler lidar and eddy-covariance are used for this purpose. The LLJ is found to generate nocturnal turbulence by introducing mechanical shear at higher levels within the boundary layer. Sporadic and intermittent turbulent events observed during this period are closely associated with large eddies at the scale of the height of the jet nose. Flux densities in the stable boundary layer are observed to become non-local under the influence of the LLJ. Different turbulence regimes are identified, along with transitions between turbulent periods and intermittency. Wavelet analysis is used to elucidate the presence of large-scale eddies and associated intermittency during nocturnal periods in the surface layer. Although the LLJ is a regional-scale phenomenon it has far reaching consequences with regard to surface-atmosphere exchange processes.     

Surface Temperature and Surface-Layer Turbulence in a Convective Boundary Layer

Previous laboratory and atmospheric experiments have shown that turbulence influences the surface temperature in a convective boundary layer. The main objective of this study is to examine land-atmosphere coupled heat transport mechanism for different stability conditions. High frequency infrared imagery and sonic anemometer measurements were obtained during the boundary layer late afternoon and sunset turbulence (BLLAST) experimental campaign. Temporal turbulence data in the surface-layer are then analyzed jointly with spatial surface-temperature imagery. The surface-temperature structures (identified using surface-temperature fluctuations) are strongly linked to atmospheric turbulence as manifested in several findings. The surface-temperature coherent structures move at an advection speed similar to the upper surface-layer or mixed-layer wind speed, with a decreasing trend with increase in stability. Also, with increasing instability the streamwise surface-temperature structure size decreases and the structures become more circular. The sequencing of surface- and air-temperature patterns is further examined through conditional averaging. Surface heating causes the initiation of warm ejection events followed by cold sweep events that result in surface cooling. The ejection events occur about 25 % of the time, but account for 60–70 % of the total sensible heat flux and cause fluctuations of up to 30 % in the ground heat flux. Cross-correlation analysis between air and surface temperature confirms the validity of a scalar footprint model.     

A k - *epsiv Turbulence Closure Model For The Atmospheric Boundary Layer Including Urban Canopy

A numerical model for the computation of the wind field,air temperature and humidity in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) including the urbancanopy was developed for urban climate simulation. The governing equations of the modelare derived by applying ensemble and spatial averages to the Navier–Stokes equation, continuityequation and equations for heat and water vapour transfer in the air. With the spatial averagingprocedure, effects of buildings and other urban structures in the urban canopy can be accounted for byintroducing an effective volume function, defined as the ratio between the volume of air in acomputational mesh over the total volume of the mesh. The improved k - model accounts for the anisotropyof the turbulence field under density stratification. In the improved k - model, the transportof momentum and heat in the vertical direction under density stratification is evaluated based onthe assumption of a near-equilibrium shear flow where transport effects on the stresses andheat fluxes are negligible. The heating processes at surfaces of buildings and ground are alsomodelled. The comparison of the computational results obtained with the present modeland existing observational data and numerical models shows that the present model is capableof predicting the structure of turbulence in the urban canopy layer under density stratification.Numerical experiments with the new model show that the flow behaviour of the air in the urbancanopy layer is strongly affected by the existence of buildings and density stratification.     

Local Scales of Turbulence in the Stable Boundary Layer

Local, gradient-based scales, which contain the vertical velocity and temperature variances, as well as the potential temperature gradient, but do not include fluxes, are tested using data collected during the CASES-99 experiment. The observations show that the scaling based on the temperature variance produces relatively smaller scatter of empirical points. The resulting dimensionless statistical moments approach constant values for sufficiently large values of the Richardson number Ri. This allows one to derive predictions for the Monin–Obukhov similarity functions φ _m and φ _h , the Prandtl number Pr and the flux Richardson number Rf in weak turbulence regime.