Behavior of atmospheric formic and acetic acid in the presence of hydrometeors

The partitioning of formic and acetic acid between the atmospheric liquid and gaseous phase is modelled for a range of liquid water contents. At low liquid water content, formic acid is dissolved preferentially over acetic acid. Applying these results to the analysis of processes taking place in clouds, one can explain the frequently found enrichment of formic over acetic acid in rainwater, which results from selective transport by washout. We assess the ability of dew to act as a temporary sink and source for organic acids, and propose that the diel variation of mixing ratios often found during surface measurements, may in part be due to the dissolution in dew and subsequent evaporation on the following day.     

Effects of mixing on the subduction of South Pacific waters identified by a simulated passive tracer and its adjoint

Effects of mixing on water mass subduction are analyzed in the South Pacific Ocean. Model simulations using a passive tracer and its adjoint are employed in conjunction with a particle tracking method to distinguish effects of mixing from those of advection. The results show that mixing processes can contribute to as much as 20% of the overall subduction rate in the South Pacific. Of this mixing contribution, about 30% can be attributed to meso-scale eddies, including their associated bolus transport, while the major part (70%) is due to other diabatic processes. The impact of mixing reaches its maximum near the Sub-Antarctic Front, accounting for nearly 30% of the total subduction rate. Consequently, estimates based on tracing particles or on advection alone may significantly underestimate the subduction rate in the South Pacific Ocean.     

基于ERA5再分析资料对2020年6月江淮区域水汽源汇的诊断分析

2020年6月,我国江淮区域出现大范围持续性强降水过程,并引发了洪涝灾害。利用ERA5再分析资料对江淮区域的水汽收支平衡进行分析,并利用HYSPLIT后向轨迹模式分析了其水汽源地。结果表明：(1)ERA5再分析资料能较好地描述本次过程中江淮区域的水汽收支特征,其中水汽辐合项为主要贡献项,对水汽汇有较好的指示作用,同时,降水和水汽汇之间保持了较好的一致性变化。(2)南海是江淮区域6月持续性降水最主要的水汽源地,约50%的水汽来自南海。(3)6月江淮区域降水分布与水汽的输送密切相关,而水汽输送主要取决于西太平洋副热带高压的位置及其与北侧冷涡活动的共同作用。     

Comparison of Aerosol Effects on Simulated Spring and Summer Hailstorm Clouds

Numerical simulations are carried out to investigate the effect of cloud condensation nuclei(CCN) concentrations on microphysical processes and precipitation characteristics of hailstorms. Two hailstorm cases are simulated, a spring case and a summer case, in a semiarid region of northern China, with the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System. The results are used to investigate the differences and similarities of the CCN effects between spring and summer hailstorms. The similarities are:(1) The total hydrometeor mixing ratio decreases, while the total ice-phase mixing ratio enhances, with increasing CCN concentration;(2) Enhancement of the CCN concentration results in the production of a greater amount of small-sized hydrometeor particles, but a lessening of large-sized hydrometeor particles;(3) As the CCN concentration increases, the supercooled cloud water and rainwater make a lesser contribution to hail, while the ice-phase hydrometeors take on active roles in the growth of hail;(4) When the CCN concentration increases, the amount of total precipitation lessens,while the role played by liquid-phase rainfall in the amount of total precipitation reduces, relatively, compared to that of icephase precipitation. The differences between the two storms include:(1) An increase in the CCN concentration tends to reduce pristine ice mixing ratios in the spring case but enhance them in the summer case;(2) Ice-phase hydrometeor particles contribute more to hail growth in the spring case, while liquid water contributes more in the summer case;(3) An increase in the CCN concentration has different effects on surface hail precipitation in different seasons.     

利用高分辨率ERA-Interim再分析资料对2011年夏季江淮区域水汽汇的诊断分析

利用水平分辨率接近0.7°×0.7°、垂直方向60层的ERA-Interim再分析资料,分析了2011年夏季江淮区域水汽汇的演变及各项的贡献,研究了与水汽辐合项有关的水汽输送及相应的月平均环流和天气尺度扰动。结果表明:(1)ERA-Interim再分析资料对江淮区域夏季水汽平衡有较好的描述能力。由水汽辐合项与水汽局地变化项计算的水汽汇值和用降水与蒸发求得的水汽汇值高度一致,说明该资料可用于研究江淮区域的水汽汇。(2)2011年夏季江淮区域整体处于水汽汇区,且水汽汇值具有明显的2~6天的天气尺度振荡。降水对水汽汇的贡献远大于蒸发,而水汽辐合项与水汽局地变化项对水汽汇均有较大贡献,并且对水汽汇具有超前1~2天的指示作用。(3)月平均环流和天气尺度扰动均通过与水汽输送密切相关的水汽辐合项对江淮区域水汽汇产生显著影响。月际尺度的水汽汇变化与大尺度大气环流尤其是副高有密切关系;而江淮流域及西南地区的天气扰动对江淮区域水汽汇的天气尺度振荡起到至关重要的作用。     

层状云结构和降水机制研究及人工增雨问题讨论

总结了层状云及其降水物理研究的部分成果。在此基础上, 讨论了层状云人工增雨的几个问题, 提出用常规观测资料判断人工增雨条件的方法。具体结果如下:层状云结构是不均匀的。层状云系在垂直方向上具有分层结构。“催化—供给”云是降水性层状云的典型结构, “催化—供给”云相互作用是导致降水的主要过程。按微观结构可以将降水性层状云分成3 层:冰相层、冰水混合层和液水层。冰相层是催化云, 冰水混合层和液水层是供给云。层状云降水过程研究表明, 对应于层状云或“催化—供给”云的3层宏观结构, 发生着不同的微物理过程, 粒子形成和增长过程也不同。冰相层的冰晶和雪, 凝华是其主要增长方式, 其次是雪与冰晶的聚合过程;雪(或聚合体)落入冰水混合层后, 继续通过凝华增长或贝吉龙过程增长, 同时撞冻过冷云水增长, 有部分冰雪晶通过撞冻增长而转化成霰。在液水层, 雪(或聚合体)霰开始融化, 同时收集云暖区云水增长。冰相粒子的撞冻增长过程和凝华增长过程相比同样重要。层状云各层对降水的贡献不同。一般而言, 对于“催化—供给”云, 催化云对降水的贡献低于30%, 供给云在70%以上。在以上研究的基础上, 讨论了层状云人工增雨的问题。(1)“催化—供给”云结构有利于云水转化成降水, 只有冰相层、冰水混合成和液水层相互“配合”, 才能形成有效降水。可以将“催化—供给”云作为层状云人工增雨催化的结构条件。(2)要选择降水形成以冷云过程为主的层状云催化, 冰面饱和水汽量和过冷水含量要大些。(3)层状云人工增雨原理应该补充。降水形成不但经历贝吉龙-芬德森过程, 冰水混合层的聚合和撞冻增长也是十分重要的过程。过冷水对于降水的形成非常重要, 但冰面饱和水汽量对降水的形成也同样重要。最后, 结合层状云的研究成果, 提出用常规探测资料判别层状云人工增雨催化条件的方法:利用卫星云图和雷达回波判别“催化—供给”云的结构, 用雷达RHI 回波(在距离高度显示器上的回波)判别降水机制和液水层。       

Effects of time-dependent large-scale forcing, solar zenith angle, and sea surface temperature on time-mean rainfall: a partitioning analysis based on surface rainfall budget

Effects of time-dependent large-scale forcing, solar zenith angle, and sea surface temperature on time-mean rainfall during the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Coupled Ocean?CAtmosphere Response Experiment (TOGA COARE) are examined through a partitioning analysis of a series of sensitivity cloud-resolving model experiment data based on surface rainfall budget. The model is forced by time-dependent large-scale forcing (LSF), solar zenith angle (SZA), and sea surface temperature (SST) in the control experiment and is forced only by either time-dependent LSF, SZA, or SST while others are replaced with their time averages in the sensitivity experiments. The rainfall associated with water vapor divergence and local atmospheric drying and hydrometeor loss/convergence has the largest contribution to total rainfall among eight rainfall types. The largest rainfall contribution is increased in the simulations where either time-dependent LSF, SZA, or SST is replaced with its average, whereas it is decreased in the simulation where COARE-derived large-scale vertical velocity is replaced with zero vertical velocity. The contribution of the rainfall associated with water vapor convergence to total rainfall is decreased in the simulations with time-mean LSF, SZA, and SST, whereas it is increased in the simulation without large-scale vertical velocity.     

云凝结物平流输送对降水云系发展影响的数值模拟研究

大气动力学中"平流输送"是非常重要的宏观动力学过程,云凝结物的平流输送与降水云系的发展演变密切相关,它把宏观动力过程与各种云凝结物粒子的时空演变联系起来,云凝结物的平流输送可以增加或减少局地大气中云凝结物的含量,改变云凝结物的空间分布状况,影响云凝结物的微观物理过程,进而促进或抑制降水云系的发展演变.本文在数值模拟研究中.通过改变云凝结物平流输送的状况来研究宏观动力过程对云微观物理过程的影响,因而利用ARPS模式开展3个分别排除云凝结物水平平流输送、垂直平流输送和三维平流输送的敏感试验,进行关于云凝结物平流输送对降水云系发展演变影响的敏感性数值模拟研究.结果表明,云凝结物的平流输送对水汽比湿的影响很小.云凝结物的三维平流输送有利于增加降水云系中雪和霰的混合比含量,抑制云水、雨水和云冰混合比含量的增长.云凝结物的水平平流输送可以降低降水云系中云水和雨水的混合比含量,增加云冰和雪的混合比含量;云凝结物垂直平流输送的作用是增加降水云系中雨水、雪和霰的混合比含量,减少云与冰混合比含量.云凝结物三维平流输送效应的分析表明,云凝结物的三维平流输送主要通过调整云凝结物的微物理过程源汇项以及降水粒子(雨水、雪和霰)的下落末速项来改变降水云系中云凝结物的垂直结构;另外,雪的三维平流输送对雪本身的分布也有一定影响.     

Spring time sources and sinks of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate in the UK and its contribution to acidification and nitrification of cloud water

During spring the atmospheric concentration of Peroxyacetyl Nitrate, PAN, in the UK varies over three orders of magnitude due to long range transport and local photochemical production. An experiment at Great Dun Fell was used to determine which of these sources of PAN controlled spring time concentrations and to quantify the contribution of PAN to oxidised nitrogen in cloud water. The gas phase mixing ratio of a wide range of trace gas pollutants, including PAN, along with cloud water chemical composition and aerosol/cloud droplet distributions were measured. A chemical model was developed to determine the contribution of PAN hydrolysis to cloud water nitrification and to quantify the sink strengths of PAN. Chemical reaction following thermal decomposition was found to be the dominant sink mechanism in the model but transport was the most important factor controlling PAN concentration. During cloud episodes PAN concentrations varied from 100 ppt to over 1 ppb but the calculated inorganic oxidised nitrogen loading in the cloud due to PAN dissolution and hydrolysis was an insignificant fraction of the observed total oxidised nitrogen loading of the cloud. Extrapolation of the model to persistent cloud in marine conditions showed that PAN has a negligible effect on cloud nitrification. It was concluded that PAN concentrations were heavily influenced by regional concentrations and that the hydrolysis of PAN in cloud water was an insignificant source of oxidised nitrogen in cloud water.     

Resolved Versus Parametrized Boundary-Layer Plumes. Part I: A Parametrization-Oriented Conditional Sampling in Large-Eddy Simulations

A conditional sampling based on the combination of a passive tracer emitted at the surface and thermodynamic variables is proposed to characterise organized structures in large-eddy simulations of cloud-free and cloudy boundary layers. The sampling is evaluated against more traditional sampling of dry thermals or clouds. It enables the characterization of convective updrafts from the surface to the top of the boundary layer (or the top of cumulus clouds), describing in particular the transition from the sub-cloud to the cloud layer, and retrieves plume characteristics, entrainment and detrainment rates, variances and fluxes. This sampling is used to analyze the contribution of boundary-layer thermals to vertical fluxes and variances.     

A Model Evaluation of Biological Effects on Seasonal Variation of Air–Sea CO2 Flux in the Yellow and East China Seas

Based on a coupled physical-biogeochemical model of the Yellow and East China Seas (YECS), the influence of biological activity on the seasonal variation of the air–sea CO₂ flux is evaluated. The solution of a sensitivity experiment that excludes biological activity is compared with that of a reference experiment that includes the full processes. The comparison reveals that biological activity results in a much stronger seasonal variation of surface dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and, hence, the ratio of total alkalinity to DIC in the northern parts of the YECS. The increased ratio resulting from biological DIC consumption contributes to the undersaturated partial pressure of CO₂ at the sea surface with respect to the atmosphere, causing the central Yellow Sea in summer and autumn to shift from being a CO₂ source to a sink; this same shift also occurs over the Changjiang Bank in summer. In the southern YECS, the biological effect is relatively weak. The comparison further reveals that low water temperature, instead of biological activity, is the dominant factor causing the YECS to become a carbon sink in spring. The biological effect on the variation of DIC (both at the surface and in the water column) differs greatly among the three representative regions of the YECS because of differences in primary production and hydrodynamic conditions. Particle-tracking simulations quantify the regional difference in horizontal advection. In the northern region, weaker horizontal advection causes the longer residence time of low DIC water induced by biological consumption. Over the entire YECS, biological activity contributes to about one-third of the total annual absorption of atmospheric CO₂.     

Potential for added value in temperature simulated by high-resolution nested RCMs in present climate and in the climate change signal

Regional Climate Models (RCMs) have been developed in the last two decades in order to produce high-resolution climate information by downscaling Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) simulations or analyses of observed data. A crucial evaluation of RCMs worth is given by the assessment of the value added compared to the driving data. This evaluation is usually very complex due to the manifold circumstances that can preclude a fair assessment. In order to circumvent these issues, here we limit ourselves to estimating the potential of RCMs to add value over coarse-resolution data. We do this by quantifying the importance of fine-scale RCM-resolved features in the near-surface temperature, but disregarding their skill. The Reynolds decomposition technique is used to separate the variance of the time-varying RCM-simulated temperature field according to the contribution of large and small spatial scales and of stationary and transient processes. The temperature variance is then approximated by the contribution of four terms, two of them associated with coarse-scales (e.g., corresponding to the scales that can be simulated by AOGCMs) and two of them describing the original contribution of RCM simulations. Results show that the potential added value (PAV) emerges almost exclusively in regions characterised by important surface forcings either due to the presence of fine-scale topography or land-water contrasts. Moreover, some of the processes leading to small-scale variability appear to be related with relatively simple mechanisms such as the distinct physical properties of the Earth surface and the general variation of temperature with altitude in the Earth atmosphere. Finally, the article includes some results of the application of the PAV framework to the future temperature change signal due to anthropogenic greenhouse gasses. Here, contrary to previous studies centred on precipitation, findings suggest for surface temperature a relatively low potential of RCMs to add value over coarser resolution models, with the greatest potential located in coastline regions due to the differential warming occurring in land and water surfaces.     

Analyses of variance and flux budgets in cumulus-topped boundary layers

A large-eddy simulation (LES) of a cumulus-topped boundary layer (CTBL) has been made, based on observations gathered on 10 September 1974 during the GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE). On this day there were light winds, making buoyancy production the only important mechanism for generating turbulent kinetic energy. Cumulus clouds with a depth of a few hundred meters covered about 10% of the sky. A comparison between LES results and observed variances and fluxes will be made.In order to understand the dynamics of the cumulus, we will investigate the physical mechanisms by which variances and fluxes are produced in CTBL's. This will be done by analyzing the budget equations which describe the time evolution of the variances and fluxes. The production, transport and destruction terms, that appear in these equations, will be calculated explicitly with the LES model.Budgets are calculated from the GATE simulation and two slightly modified GATE simulations, in which only the initial water vapor specific humidity is increased. As a result in these two modified GATE simulations the vertical extent of the clouds and the cloud cover is larger. In this way, the influence of the cumulus clouds on the budgets can be investigated more thoroughly. Finally, the budgets are compared with the results obtained from an earlier simulation based on the Puerto Rico Field Experiment and other results found in the literature.     

Assessment of several moist adiabatic processes associated with convective energy calculation

Several methods dealing with the moist adiabatic process are described in this paper. They are basedon static energy conservation, pseudoequivalent potential temperature conservation, the strict pseudoadiabatic equation, and the reversible moist adiabatic process, respectively. Convective energy parameters, which are closely related to the moist adiabatic process and which reflect the gravitational effects ofcondensed liquid water, are reintroduced or defined, including MCAPE [Modified-CAPE (convective available potential energy)], DCAPE (Downdraft-CAPE), and MDCAPE (Modified-Downdraft-CAPE). Two real case analyses with special attention given to condensed liquid water show that the selection of moist adiabatic process does affect the calculated results of CAPE and the gravitational effects of condensed liquid water are not negligible in severe storms. Intercomparisons of these methods show that static energy conservation is consistent with pseudo-equivalent potential temperature conservation not only in physical properties but also in calculated results, and both are good approximations to the strict pseudo-adiabatic equation. The lapse rate linked with the reversible moist adiabatic process is relatively smaller than that linked with other moist adiabatic processes, especially when considering solidification of liquid water in the reversible adiabatic process.     

Transient wave activity and its fluxes in the North Atlantic Ocean simulated by a global eddy-resolving model

Eight-year daily mean output of a quasi-global eddy-resolving model is examined with a focus on the large-scale dynamical characteristics of the North Atlantic Ocean in a framework of potential vorticity (PV) and its derivatives. The model has reproduced some of the observed features of the mean potential vorticity field well. The three-dimensional structure of the mean potential vorticity supports baroclinic instability in most of the basin. Eddies are found to play important roles in the formation and maintenance of the mean potential vorticity fields. The contribution of relative vorticity to the mean potential vorticity field is found to be negligible for the most part. However, relative vorticity contribution to the source/sink of potential vorticity and eddy potential enstrophy is not negligible. We also find that eddies are not necessarily diffusive even on a basin-scale.     

Potential vorticity and eddy potential enstrophy in the North Atlantic Ocean simulated by a global eddy-resolving model

Eight-year daily mean output of a quasi-global eddy-resolving model is examined with a focus on the large-scale dynamical characteristics of the North Atlantic Ocean in a framework of potential vorticity (PV) and its derivatives. The model has reproduced some of the observed features of the mean potential vorticity field well. The three-dimensional structure of the mean potential vorticity supports baroclinic instability in most of the basin. Eddies are found to play important roles in the formation and maintenance of the mean potential vorticity fields. The contribution of relative vorticity to the mean potential vorticity field is found to be negligible for the most part. However, relative vorticity contribution to the source/sink of potential vorticity and eddy potential enstrophy is not negligible. We also find that eddies are not necessarily diffusive even on a basin-scale.     

Field study of the potential for winter precipitation enhancement in the Australian Snowy Mountains

A research program was initiated in 1988 to investigate the potential for winter snowpack enhancement in the Snowy Mountains of Australia. Field studies were conducted during the austral winters of 1988 and 1989 in order to characterize the water and ice composition of clouds passing over these mountains. We utilized a dual-channel microwave radiometer and a Ka-band (8.6 mm wavelength) radar in a coordinated observational program to document the distribution of supercooled liquid water, ice phase precipitation and water vapor in the winter storm systems. The vertical temperature, humidity and wind profiles were obtained at high temporal resolution from local rawinsonde launches. Ground-based sampling of the snow crystal types and the stable isotopic composition of the snow provided information on the processes of crystal formation and riming during these storms. A precipitation trajectory model was used to simulate ice crystal growth for snow which precipitates within the study region. Analysis of these data indicate buildup of supercooled liquid water during certain storm periods, while during other periods the ice crystal growth processes efficiently remove cloud liquid. Several aspects of the cloud seeding potential are discussed in this paper and the overall conclusion is that winter precipitation enhancement is scientifically feasible, based upon the World Meteorological Organization criterion of supercooled liquid water availability.     

Analysis of Pseudomomentum Wave-Activity Density in a Heavy Rainfall Event in East China

Taking into account moisture in virtue of general potential temperature,the author derive a three-dimensional(3D) pseudomomentum wave-activity relation for the moist atmosphere from the primitive equations in Cartesian coordinates using the Momentum-Casimir method.Since the wave-activity relation is constructed in an ageostrophic and non-hydrostatic dynamical framework,it may be applicable to diagnosing the evolution and propagation of mesoscale systems leading to heavy rainfall.The theoretical analysis shows that,besides the local change of wave-activity flux divergence and source or sink,the wave-activity relation includes two additional forcing terms.The first is the zonal gradient of difference between general potential temperature and potential temperature perturbations,and the second is the covariance of the solenoid and gradient of water vapor,denoting the direct influence of moisture on wave-activity density.The wave-activity density was applied to a heavy precipitation event occurring in the Jianghuai region of China.The calculation showed that the wave-activity density was consistent with 6-h accumulated precipitation observations,in terms of both spatial distribution and temporal tendency.This suggested that the disturbance represented by wave-activity density was closely related to the heavy precipitation.Although the wave-activity flux divergence and the covariance of the solenoid and gradient of water vapor made the primary contribution to the local change of wave-activity density,the covariance was more remarkable.The zonal gradient of difference between general potential temperature and potential temperature perturbations made a weaker contribution to the waveactivity density.     

冻滴微物理过程的分档数值模拟试验研究

霰和冻滴是深对流降水的主要来源。由于二者密度差异造成的不同下落末速度必然会导致云微物理过程的变化以及降水时空分布的改变。我们在以色列特拉维夫大学二维轴对称对流云全分档模式的基础上,将水成物粒子从34档增加到40档,修改了霰和雪的密度,加入冻滴分档处理的微物理过程,发展了一个包括液滴、冰晶、雪、霰和冻滴更为详细的云微物理分档模式。利用改进后的模式模拟了一次理想的强对流天气过程,分析了改进模式与原模式模拟的云微物理量场以及水成物粒子的时空分布特征,模拟结果表明:（1）由于冻滴的产生,较大的下落末速度导致在云内-3℃至-8℃较早地出现了冻滴,并造成了大量的冰晶繁生。（2）冻滴形成前期,液态水中心区域位于垂直上升速度大值中心上方,形成液态水累积区;冻滴形成期,液态水累积区位于0℃层以上,雨滴冻结生成冻滴,霰与半径大于100 μm的液滴碰并生成冻滴;冻滴增长期,在垂直上升气流的支撑下,冻滴碰并过冷水增长,导致冻滴含量增大,液态水含量减小。因此,改进模式能较好的模拟冻滴的形成过程,可以将该分档处理的微物理方案耦合到三维WRF（Weather Research and Forecasting model）模式中,更深入地研究强雷暴风切变在冰雹生成过程中的作用。     

The effect of vertical transports of heat and moisture by cumulus convection in typhoon

By utilizing the denser upper-air observations from the Okinawa region and Japanese islands during August 17－23, 1975, the vertical transports of heat and moisture by cumulus convection in the typhoon No. 7507 have been calculated. It is found that there exist a large apparent heat source (Q1) and a mois-ture sink (Q2) in the southern part of the typhoon at the disturbance, growing and mature stages. The magnitudes of the apparent heat source and moisture sink ace rather small, or turn into the apparent heat sink in the northern sector of the typhoon. In the southern part of the typhoon, the total cloud mass flux (Mc) is positive, whereas in the northern part of the typhoon Mc is negative. The above-mentioned distributions of Q1, Q2 and Mc agree well with the major cloud patterns.In the southern part of the typhoon, Q2 is positive because the drying effect is always larger than the evaporative cooling, whereas in the northern part of the typhoon, the opposite case is true because both the drying and evaporating effects of liquid water make a negative contribution to Q2.