华北山区坡地产流规律研究

Simulated rainfall is a valid tool to examine the runoff generation on the slope. 13 simulated rainfall experiments with different rainfall intensities and durations are completed in a 5 m ×10 m experimental plot in mountainous area of North China. Simultaneously, rainfall, surface runoff, soil-layer flow, mantel-layer flow and soil moisture are monitored respectively. From the results, it is found that the hydrographs in all layers have the characteristics of rapid rise and fall. The recessions of surface flow and soil-layer flow are much faster than that of mantel-layer flow. Surface flow, the main contributor, makes up more than 60% of the total runoff in the study area. It even exceeds 90% in the cases of high intensity rainfall events. Runoff coefficient (ratio of total runoff to rainfall amount) is mainly influenced by rainfall amount, rainfall intensity and antecedent soil moisture, and the relationship can be well ex-pressed by a multiple linear regression function a = 0.002P + 0.1821 + 4.88Wa - 0.821. The relation between the rainfall intensity and the lag time of three flows (surface runoff, soil-layer flow and mantel-layer flow) is shown to be exponential. Then, the result also shows that the recession constant is 0.75 for surface runoff, is 0.94 for soil-layer and mantel-layer flow in this area. In this study area, the dominant infiltration excess runoff is simulated by Horton model. About 0.10 mm/min percolation is observed under the condition of different rainfall intensities, therefore the value is regarded as the steady infiltration rate of the study area.     

华北石质山区坡地产流模型

坡地是流域的基本产流单元。对坡地产流模型的研究,可为研究流域的水文过程奠定基础。本文在认识坡地产流规律的基础上,经过对人工模拟降雨试验中取得的产流各个环节(降雨、出流及土壤含水量变化)的数据的分析,建立了一个具有物理机制的简单的坡面产流模型。其中,使用Horton模型模拟入渗和地表产流过程,用水箱模型模拟壤中流过程。模型能够同时对降雨过程中的地表、地下出流和土壤含水量变化过程进行模拟。计算得到的产流总量的误差较小,但在变化过程线上存在一些差异。这些差异主要是由模型对实际情况的简化和假定、数学模拟的局限性、变雨强降雨过程的复杂性等因素引起的。这种分层组合的坡面产流模型对华北石质山区的上层超渗、下层蓄满的产流特征是可行的。本文所做的工作是对华北石质山区分布式水文模型的产流模块的初步尝试。     

威连滩冲沟砂黄土的风蚀与降雨侵蚀模拟实验

 通过风洞与模拟降雨实验，研究了风力与降雨对青海省贵南县威连滩冲沟砂黄土的复合侵蚀作用。实验得出：①风蚀后的降雨使砂黄土表面在风干过程中形成了一层较为坚硬的结壳，增大了土壤的抗蚀性，降低了第二次风洞实验后期的风蚀率;②土壤水分与人为扰动是影响土壤风蚀的两个重要因素。当土壤水分较小时，风蚀率受人为扰动影响巨大;当土壤水分较大时，人为扰动对土壤风蚀的影响较小;③在持续降雨的实验条件下，砂黄土的产流、产沙量随着雨强的变化而改变。这种变化与表土的侵蚀率、可蚀性物质的多少、土壤水分以及土壤的入渗率等都有很大的关系。     

In-situ rainwater harvesting and gravel mulch combination for corn production in the dry semi-arid region of China

A field study was conducted to determine the effect of a combination of ridge and furrow method of in-situ rainwater harvesting with gravel mulch on corn production, soil moisture storage, and water-use efficiency in the dry semi-arid region of China. Results showed that plastic-covered ridges had an average runoff efficiency (runoff/rainfall) of 87% as compared to 7% for bare ridges, and could generate runoff at a threshold value of 0·8±0·2 mm rainfall. Bare ridges produced runoff only under high intensity rainfall events, and was ineffective for harvesting rainfall in the study area. The plastic-covered ridge and gravel-mulched furrow method of rainwater harvesting was effective in conserving moisture and increasing yield and water-use efficiency. The grain yield in this treatment was 1·9 times that of the conventional flat soil cultivation (control), and the water-use efficiency was 1·8 times that of the control. The good performance of the film-covered surface ridges and gravel-mulched furrows is attributed to the better utilization of light rains, improvement of infiltration in the root zone, and suppression of evaporation losses.     

黄土土壤结皮对产流临界雨强的影响分析

依据野外资料,从影响产流的各项因子出发,分析黄土高原典型区土壤结皮对产流临界雨强条件的影响,得出:在该区特殊的超渗产流方式下,土壤结皮降低入渗,使得产流时的临界雨强条件降低,因而大大提高了产流的可能性。但是,在实际情况下,雨强变异很大,应考虑不同雨强情况下土壤结皮对产流量的影响。而在室内条件下,各项因子均是可控的,一般情况下,雨强恒定,产流时的临界雨强条件降低,意味着产流提早,必然带来产流量的增加。     

沙地降雨入渗水分动态

应用土壤水动力学基本原理，结合先进仪器的使用，从动力学角度，以能态观点定量研究沙地水分入渗动态。通过野外现场观测，分析不同深度含水率和吸力随时间变化过程，研究沙地降雨入渗水分传递过程，探讨入渗条件下沙地水分运动的动力学机制和特征。     

Differential responses of hillslope and channel elements to rainfall events in a semi-arid area

The degree of hydrological connectivity of hillslope elements in a semi-arid climate was studied at the season and event timescales. Field data were obtained in Rambla Honda, a Medalus project field site situated in SE Spain, on micaschist bedrock and with 300 mm annual rainfall. The season timescale was assessed using correlation analysis between soil moisture and topographic indices. The event timescale was studied by a quasi-continuous monitoring of rainfall, soil moisture, runoff and piezometric levels. Results show that widespread transfers of water along the hillslope are unusual because potential conditions for producing overland flow or throughflow are spatially discontinuous and extremely short-lived. During extreme events, runoff coefficients may be locally high (ca. 40% on slope lengths of 10 m), but decrease dramatically at the hillslope scale (<10% on slope lengths of 50 m). Two mechanisms of overland flow generation have been identified: infiltration excess, and local subsurface saturation from upper layers. The former occurs during the initial stages of the event while the latter, which is quantitatively more important, takes place later and requires a certain time structure of rainfall intensities that allow saturation of the topsoil and the subsequent production of runoff. Hillslopes and alluvial fans function as runoff sources and sinks respectively. Permanent aquifers are lacking in Rambla Honda. Variable proportions of hillslope areas may contribute to flash floods in the main channel, but their contribution to the formation of saturated layers within the sediment fill is very limited.     

Influence of canopy and topographic position on soil moisture response to rainfall in a hilly catchment of Three Gorges Reservoir Area,China

Rainfall provides essential water resource for vegetation growth and acts as driving force for hydrologic process, bedrock weathering and nutrient cycle in the steep hilly catchment. But the effects of rainfall features, vegetation types, topography, and also their interactions on soil water movement and soil moisture dynamics are inadequately quantified. During the coupled wet and dry periods of the year 2018 to 2019, time-series soil moisture was monitored with 5-min interval resolution in a hilly catchment of the Three Gorges Reservoir Area in China. Three hillslopes covered with evergreen forest(EG), secondary deciduous forest mixed with shrubs(SDFS) and deforested pasture(DP) were selected, and two monitoring sites with five detected depths were established at upslope and downslope position, respectively. Several parameters expressing soil moisture response to rainfall event were evaluated, including wetting depth, cumulative rainfall amount and lag time before initial response, maximum increase of soil water storage, and transform ratio of rainwater to soil water. The results indicated that rainfall amount is the dominant rainfall variable controlling soil moisture response to rainfall event. No soil moisture response occurred when rainfall amounts was 8 mm, and all the deepest monitoring sensors detected soil moisture increase when total rainfall amounts was 30 mm. In the wet period, the cumulative rainfall amount to trigger surface soil moisture response in EG-up site was significantly higher than in other five sites. However, no significant difference in cumulative rainfall amount to trigger soil moisture response was observed among all study sites in dry period. Vegetation canopy interception reduced the transform ratio of rainwater to soil water, with a higher reduction in vegetation growth period than in other period. Also, interception of vegetation canopy resulted in a largeraccumulated rainfall amount and a longer lag time for initiating soil moisture response to rainfall. Generally, average cumulative rainfall amount for initiating soil moisture response during dry period of all sites(3.5–5.6 mm) were less than during wet period(5.7–19.7 mm). Forests captured more infiltration water compared with deforested pasture, showing the larger increments of both soil water storage for the whole soil profile and volumetric soil water content at 10 cm depth on two forest slopes. Topography dominated soil subsurface flow, proven by the evidences that less rainfall amount and less time was needed to trigger soil moisture response and also larger accumulated soil water storage increment in downslope site than in corresponding upslope site during heavy rainfall events.     

陇中黄土高原丘陵沟壑区不同植被恢复模式下次降雨产流产沙特征

基于甘肃省清水县汤峪河径流小区2015—2017年的观测数据,研究不同植被恢复模式条件下坡面次降雨入渗、产流产沙特征。结果表明：不同植被恢复模式条件下的土壤入渗量与降雨强度呈二次函数关系,存在入渗量达到最大值的临界降雨强度。入渗速率与降雨历时可以用幂函数关系表达,符合考斯恰可夫入渗模型。不同植被恢复模式条件下的产流率在0.003 3~0.003 6 mm·min^-1之间,相对裸地的减流率为54%~58%。产流率与降雨强度之间呈二次函数关系（R²>0.88）,产流率的主要影响因素是降雨强度。径流含沙量平均值乔灌混合区（3.13 g·L^-1）>灌木林（2.95 g·L^-1）>乔木林（2.79 g·L^-1）>草地（2.58 g·L^-1）,径流含沙量与降雨强度呈线性递增函数关系。裸地的产沙量显著高于各植被小区（P<0.05）,是各植被小区的43~57倍,各植被小区的减沙率在93%~94%之间,减沙效益高于其减流效益。各植被坡面土壤流失量与降雨侵蚀力呈线性递增函数关系;产流率与侵蚀产沙率之间呈极显著正相关关系（P<0.01）,二者间可采用二次函数关系表达。本研究成果可为黄土高原丘陵沟壑区水土保持优化配置提供理论依据。     

RUNOFF PRODUCTION AND EROSION PROCESSES ON A DEHESA IN WESTERN SPAIN*

ABSTRACT. Runoff generation and soil erosion were investigated at the Guadalperalón experimental watershed (western Spain), within the land‐use system known as dehesa, or open, managed evergreen forests. Season and type of surface were found to control runoff and soil‐loss rates. Five soil units were selected as representative of surface types found in the study area: hillslope grass, bottom grass, tree cover, sheep trails, and shrub cover. Measurements were made in various conditions with simulated rainfall to gain an idea of the annual variation in runoff and soil loss. Important seasonal differences were noted due to surface cover and moisture content of soil, but erosion rates were determined primarily by runoff. Surfaces covered with grass and shrubs always showed less erosion; surfaces covered with holm oaks showed higher runoff rates, due to the hydrophobic character of the soils. Concentrations of runoff sediment during the simulations confirmed that erosion rates at the study site depended directly on the sediment available on the soil surface.     

基于Hydrus-1D模型的科尔沁沙地沙丘-草甸相间区土壤水分动态模拟

土壤水分是干旱半干旱地区生态环境的主要限制性因子,研究科尔沁沙地流动沙丘和草甸地土壤水分动态规律有助于荒漠化地区的生态恢复和保护。以2018年5月25日至10月31日为研究期,利用土壤各项实测参数和气象数据,评价Hydrus-1D模型在科尔沁沙地的适用性,并揭示科尔沁沙丘-草甸相间区土壤水分分布特征,重点分析研究区流动沙丘200 cm剖面和草甸地80 cm剖面土壤水分的动态规律。结果表明:研究区典型土地类型流动沙丘和草甸地土壤水分模拟值和实测值的决定系数均高于0.76,均方根误差0.01~0.02 cm³·cm^-3;在土壤剖面上具有明显的分层结构,流动沙丘分为3层,即0~20 cm为干沙层,20~120 cm为活跃层,120~200 cm为稳定层,其中40 cm土壤水分波动性最大;草甸地分为2层,即0~40 cm为活跃层,40~80 cm为稳定层,主要受降雨、蒸散发和地下水位影响;流动沙丘和草甸地降雨与表层土壤水分呈极显著相关,降雨量与地下水位变化仅草甸地呈显著正相关;在整个研究期内,流动沙丘土壤水分储量变化量为12.6 mm,土壤实际蒸发量为105.9 mm,200 cm深层渗漏量为173.9 mm,占总降雨量的59.5%;草甸地土壤水分储量变化量为8 mm,80 cm深层渗漏量为-27.2 mm(地下水补给量),土壤实际蒸发量为67 mm,植被蒸腾量为244 mm,地表径流量为0 mm。     

Comparative hydrological behaviour of two small catchments in semi-arid Zimbabwe

This paper describes and compares the hydrological responses of runoff, soil moisture and groundwater levels to rainfall events for two small semi-arid catchments over a 2-year period. Romwe received 1430 and 756 mm of rainfall in the 19999/00 and 2000/01 season, respectively. Mutangi received 756 and 615 mm of rainfall in the same years. Romwe generated 520 and 102 mm of runoff in the 19999/00 and 2000/01 seasons, respectively, while Mutangi generated 82 and 69 mm of runoff in the same years. The runoff response of the catchments was dominated by a relatively quick response to rainfall and with little or no significant contribution from regional groundwater or ‘old water’ sources. Total soil moisture storage to a depth of 120 cm was higher at Romwe than Mutangi for the entire study period reflecting the differences in the soil types. The groundwater level was closer to the surface and responded more quickly to rainfall at Romwe compared to Mutangi where water levels were between 12 and 16 m below the surface. There was a significant relationship between profile soil moisture and water table level at Romwe and none was observed at all in Mutangi. Significant (p<0.05) monthly rainfall runoff relationships were observed at both Romwe and Mutangi. At Romwe and Mutangi 91% and 76% of the runoff variation was accounted for by rainfall in the 1999/00 season, respectively. The rainfall–runoff relationship were different at Romwe for the two seasons, it was higher in the 1999/00 season than the 2000/01 season when 91% and 49% of the runoff variation was due to rainfall, respectively. The relationships were almost similar at Mutangi during the two seasons.     

Relations between interrill erosion processes and sediment particle size distribution in a semiarid Mediterranean area of SE of Spain

Erosion and sediment characteristics were measured using simulated rainfall on two cultivated soils of contrasting lithology (Quaternary calcareous colluvium and Tertiary marls) in a semiarid Mediterranean area of SE Spain. Two rainfall intensities, high (56.0±2.4 mm h⁻¹) and medium (31.4±1.4 mm h⁻¹), were used in order to know the mechanisms involved in each selected condition. For each simulated event, runoff and sediment were sampled at 1-min intervals on a 1-m wide by 2-m long erosion plot. The erosion rate was calculated as the total amount of soil lost divided by the time period of the test. The duration of the test was that needed to reach steady state runoff, an average time of 24.5 min for Quaternary calcareous colluvium and 17.7 min for Tertiary marls. The size distribution of the transported sediment in the field (effective size distribution) was compared with equivalent measurements of the same samples after chemical and mechanical dispersion (ultimate size distribution) to investigate the detachment and transport mechanisms involved in sediment mobilisation. The results showed that the soil type determined the hydrological response, regardless of the rainfall intensity. The erosional response was, however, determined by the rainfall and soil surface characteristics.In Quaternary calcareous colluvial soils, the predominant erosion process depended on the rainfall intensity, with a prevailing detachment-limited condition in high-intensity events and prevailing transport-limited conditions in those events of medium intensity. These differences in the main erosion processes were reflected in the size of the transported material and in the change in sediment size within the storm. Thus, a time-dependent size distribution of the eroded material (decreasing coarse fractions and increasing fine fractions with runoff time) was observed for high-intensity events. In medium-intensity events, on the other hand, the time-independent size distribution of the eroded material indicated transport-limited erosion.Due to the rapid surface crusting on the Tertiary marl soil, no differences in the main erosion processes or in the sediment size distribution occurred for the different rainfall intensities tested. The erosion of marl soils was determined mainly by the limited quantity of available sediment.The effective size of material was a more sensitive parameter than the ultimate size of the sediment to study the way in which the sediment was transported.     

Effectiveness of coir-based rolled erosion control systems in reducing sediment transport from hillslopes

Accelerated soil erosion is ubiquitous on human-modified hillslopes. A variety of erosion control products have been developed to reduce on-site soil resource degradation, and off-site transport of sediment and sediment-associated contaminants to receiving water bodies. However, limited quantitative data are available to assess erosion reduction effectiveness, and to establish the salient properties of the erosion control products. A replicated field-based rainfall simulation study was conducted to compare the runoff and erosion effectiveness of three coir (coconut) fiber rolled erosion control systems (RECSs) with a bare (control) treatment. Detailed temporal measurements of runoff and sediment transport were made during two phases of each experiment: (1) a 110-min application of rainfall via a rainfall simulator at 35 mm h⁻¹ after runoff initiation and (2) a 30-min period, at 3 times the flow rate of phase 1, applied via an overland flow generator. All coir treatments enhanced infiltration, delayed time to runoff generation, reduced intensity of rill incision, and reduced sediment output compared to bare treatments. More importantly, statistically significant differences were observed between coir RECSs of different architecture. For the two open weave coir systems tested, the most effective design had a higher mass per area, and less open space between the regularly aligned grid of fibers. The random fiber coir architecture was the most effective, having significantly lower runoff sediment concentrations, lower sediment yields, and a lower frequency of rill initiation. The differences in system architecture are examined in light of fundamental controls on runoff and erosion processes.     

Effect of apple production base on regional water cycle in Weibei upland of the Loess Plateau

Weibei upland, located in southern part of the Loess Plateau, is a commercial apple production base in China. The enlargement of apple-planting area has a great impact on the regional water cycle. The effects of different land use on hydrological parameters are compared and studied in this paper. The main results are as follows: (1) The initial and steady infiltration rates in apple orchard are higher than those in other land use types such as grassland, idle land and farmland. Their initial rates of infiltration are 0.823 cm/min, 0.215 cm/min, 0.534 cm/min and 0.586 cm/min in apple orchard, grassland, idle land and farmland respectively. Their steady infiltration rates are 0.45 cm/min, 0.038 cm/min, 0.191 cm/min and 0.155 cm/min respectively. (2) There is no runoff generated in plot of apple orchard in all 8 storm events in observed natural rainfalls, while runoff is generated in winter wheat plot, corn plot and alfalfa plot with runoff coefficients of 2.39%, 1.58% and 0.31% respectively. (3) The transpiration of apple trees is strong and thus soil moisture is gradually depleted. The average soil water contents in 3-9 m soil profile in Changwu plots with apple trees of 14 and 32 years in age are 11.77% and 11.59% and in Luochuan plots with those of 15 and 28 years in age are 11.7% and 11.59% respectively, which are nearly 9.0% of wilting moisture of Changwu soil and 8.6% of wilting moisture of Luochuan soil. The pathway of rainfall percolating to groundwater is hindered by dry soil profile.     

泥石流预报中前期有效降水量的确定

前期有效降水量是泥石流预报的重要参数之一,对不同类型泥石流的形成有不同的影响形式,对土力类泥石流的形成主要是影响泥石流形成区土体的土壤含水量.在每次前期降水增加的土壤含水量和其有效降水量遵循相同衰减规律,以及每次前期降水的有效降水量和其增加的土壤含水量衰减过程都是相互独立的假设条件下,通过分析土壤含水量随时间的变化关系,可以得到前期有效降水量与前期降水量随时间的变化关系,从而可以确定前期有效降水量.通过对云南蒋家沟降水和土壤含水量的实际观测,对这个关系进行了分析研究,并利用最小二乘法得出了前期有效降水量的计算公式.     

全球视野下崩岗侵蚀地貌及其研究进展

典型的崩岗具有“圆形露天剧场”般的沟头,发育在深厚的红色花岗岩风化壳上,通常包括集水坡面、崩壁、崩积体、沟道、洪积扇5个地貌组成部分;崩壁自上而下可分为表土层、风化红粘土层(红土层)、风化砂质红粘土层(砂土层)、风化粗碎屑层(碎屑层)。中国的崩岗与马达加斯加的lavaka属于同类地貌,两者具有地貌学上的可比性。崩岗群是劣地的表现形式之一,但与欧洲的badland有不同的侵蚀过程,也不同于意大利和巴西的两种沟谷侵蚀地貌calanchi和vocoroca。崩岗主要发育在华南和东南热带和亚热带湿润季风气候区中等偏缓的丘陵坡地上,由沟谷侵蚀发展而成,是沟谷侵蚀的高级阶段。崩岗沟道侵蚀产沙量占崩岗沟谷流域侵蚀产沙量的一半以上,其中沟道沟壁崩塌侵蚀产沙量与沟床下切侵蚀产沙量又各占崩岗沟道侵蚀产沙量的一半左右。野外人工模拟降雨试验是研究崩岗流域侵蚀、产流和产沙过程的有效手段。崩岗流域侵蚀产沙量可以通过崩岗沟谷和洪积扇地形测量加以估算。     

Soil water property variations in three adjacent land use types in the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia

This study investigated the effects of land use change on infiltration and moisture content of soils in three land use types. A total of 81 soil and core samples (3 replications × 3 treatments × 3 profiles × 3 soil depths) were used to determine parameters that may affect the infiltration properties of soils. The infiltration rate was measured in the field using double-ring infiltrometer with three replicates in each land use type. Results showed that infiltration rates were generally slow in the open grazed and cultivated lands suggesting high potential for runoff, limited percolation, and very low amount of water available in the soil profiles. The accumulated infiltration in soils under cultivation and open-grazing was smaller than the controlled grazing by approximately 57%. Similarly, cultivation and open-grazing had reduced the soil moisture content by 29 and 33%, respectively, compared to the controlled grazing. Surface soil compaction, higher dry bulk density and lower soil organic carbon, appeared to be the principal factors for the low infiltration capacity and moisture content of the soils. Therefore, dry land management, with long term tree cover and well regulated grazing system, is very crucial for the sustainable ecosystem functioning of this environmentally fragile area.     

Hydrological implications of desertification: Degradation of South African semi-arid subtropical thicket

Almost half of the 16,942 km² of South Africa's subtropical thicket with a substantial Portulacaria afra (spekboom) component has been heavily degraded by domestic herbivores. The subtropical thicket biome is a drought-prone and water-stressed area, and many of the region's watersheds comprise of eroded landscapes clothed in degraded spekboom thicket. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of degradation of spekboom thicket on hydrological processes. We hypothesised that degradation of spekboom thicket would reduce infiltration and, hence, reduce soil moisture retention and increase run-off and erosion. We tested this hypothesis by collecting data on rainfall, infiltration, soil moisture retention and run-off in degraded thicket, and – as a reference site – in an adjacent stand of relatively intact thicket. The results showed clear trends in the impacts of spekboom thicket degradation on hydrological processes. The more than hundred-fold lower infiltration in soils associated with degraded thicket relative to the soils beneath the intact, spekboom canopy, resulted in lower levels and less retention of soil moisture, almost double the amount of runoff, and an almost six-fold increase in sediment load. Thus, restoring degraded thicket will reduce erosion and likely improve baseflows, in addition to sequestering carbon.     

黄土丘陵沟壑区极端降雨事件及其对径流泥沙的影响

半干旱黄土丘陵沟壑区是我国水土流失的重灾区。在全球气候变化的大背景下,极端降雨事件时有发生,加重了区域水土流失防治的难度。因此,科学界定极端降雨事件、进而探讨其发生规律及其对径流侵蚀的影响尤为重要。通过整理定西市安家沟流域(35°35′N,104°39′E)17年的降水和径流侵蚀数据进行统计分析。以降雨量和最大30min雨强为指标,采用世界气象组织的标准划分了极端降雨事件。结果发现:(1)研究区内极端次降雨事件的雨量和雨强的临界值分别为40.11mm和0.55mm/min,次降雨量的多年平均值为18.87mm。17年间共发生12次极端事件,5月、7月、8月份的发生概率分别为16.67%、50%和33.33%。因此最佳防治时间段为7、8月份。(2)聚类分析表明极端降雨事件可分为三类:降雨量和雨强都大于临界值,占25%;降雨量大于临界值,而雨强小于临界值,占41.67%;雨强大于临界值,降雨量大于多年平均值而小于临界值,占33.33%。(3)在极端降雨事件作用下,径流系数和侵蚀模数要比对应的多年平均值高。总体而言,降雨量和雨强都很高的极端事件的破坏性最强,但高历时低雨强的极端事件所产生的破坏也不容低估。(4)沙棘林在生长演替的过程中显著增强了抵御土壤侵蚀的能力,对极端降雨事件有很好的防治作用。抵御极端降雨最弱的是坡耕地,主要是由于受到坡度大、植被覆盖率低以及人为干扰等因素的影响。