Geological and structural conditions of eclogitization of Paleoproterozoic basic dikes in the eastern Belomorian Mobile Belt

A new, Krasnaya Guba dike field that comprises more than 30 minor gabbronorite intrusions and dikes of “garnet” Fe-gabbro was revealed at the northeastern flank of the Belomorian Mobile Belt. Gabbronorite intrusions were emplaced along the faults that formed as a result of brittle failure under conditions of general extension. As follows from the structural relationships, dikes of Fe-gabbro are younger than gabbronorite. They were formed under compression and shearing. The mobile melt was pumped into gneisses that underwent ductile deformation. Eclogitization in the Krasnaya Guba dike field was selective and affected only dikes of Fe-gabbro and minor gabbronorite intrusions and did not develop in country rocks. The bodies of Fe-gabbro are eclogitized almost completely, whereas gabbronorite is transformed into eclogite only along shear zones. Eclogites were formed after the complete solidification of intrusive bodies, and their localization is controlled by the concentration of deformations owing to the different elastoplastic properties of gabbroic rocks and country gneisses and migmatites. The different degree of fracturing in basic dikes and country gneisses resulted in the concentration of fluid flows in fracture systems within competent rocks. Late Svecofennian pegmatites (1.86 Ga) distinctly crosscut eclogites that experienced retrograde metamorphism. The eclogitic rocks from the Krasnaya Guba are the youngest known in the Belomorye. The age of eclogitization is 2.12–1.86 Ga. A new finding of eclogitic rocks in the Belomorye, as well as previously known similar rocks near Gridino Village, emphasize tectonic activity of the northwestern Umba Collision Zone. The eclogitization of basic rocks in Krasnaya Guba is related to their desilification in shearing zones in the course of interaction of plagioclase with ortho-and clinopyroxene with the formation of garnet-omphacite aggregate and removal of silica. The currently observed texture, structure, and chemical and mineral compositions of eclogitic rocks are products of intense retrograde metamorphism.     

Andesite–Basaltic Dike Magmatism in the Paleoproterozoic Rift System of the Kola Craton,Baltic Shield

New structural and petrogeochemical data are obtained on poorly known dikes composed of quartz dolerites of andesite–basaltic composition and located at the northwestern termination of the Murmansk block (Kola Craton). These data allowed us to compare the studied dikes with more well-known units from the dike swarm in the area of the settlement of Liinakhamari and the volcanics of the Pechenga structure, and to discuss their joint geodynamic position. Dolerite dikes are 2.3 Ga in age and intrude granites and plagiogranites of 2.4 and 2.8 Ga in age, respectively. The specificity of the composition of the rocks of andesite–basaltic composition from the dike series, as well as that of the volcanics from the first (Akhmalakhti) formation of the Pechenga structure, is determined by their structural position in the marginal part of the “fading” Sumian plume and in the zone of dynamic influence of regional strike–slip fault zones.     

造山后脉岩组合与内生成矿作用

造山带大规模花岗质岩浆活动之后往往有一期区域性脉岩产出,被称为岩基后岩墙群。这类脉岩具有近同时形成、宽成分谱系和小体积的特点。根据太行山、燕山、东昆仑山、天山等造山带的观察,这类脉岩可以划分成煌斑岩质、玄武质、闪长质(安山质)、花岗闪长质(英安质)和花岗质(流纹质)等5组。前人大多偏重于研究其中基性部分,因而常常将其与大陆裂解相关基性岩墙群混为一谈。岩石地球化学分析表明,虽然同组脉岩不同样品之间可能存在演化关系,不同脉岩组之间很难相互演化。结合近年来有关岩浆过程速率的研究成果,推测这些脉岩是原生或近原生岩浆固结的产物。这意味着区域地温曲线在不同深度同时穿过所有相应原岩的固相线。基于岩浆起源热体制和区域岩石圈岩石学结构分析,笔者曾经指出,这样的岩浆产生条件要求造山带岩石圈拆沉作用。因此,这类岩墙群的形成是区域构造应力场由挤压向伸展转换阶段的产物,可以用来标定造山过程的结束,因而称其为造山后脉岩组合。进一步对比分析表明,这类脉岩组合分布非常普遍,是地球上业已发现的三类区域性岩墙群之一。尽管如此,基于热传递速率的分析,造山后脉岩组合的形成还应当伴随大规模流体活动。由于深部流体中成矿元素的浓度强烈依赖于压力,新的岩石成因模型意味着造山后脉岩组合与成矿作用相伴生。野外检验表明,可以基于露头观察识别成矿流体的通道和成矿元素大规模堆积的场所。因此,造山后脉岩组合不仅可以用来标定区域造山过程结束的时间,也是区域找矿预测的有效标志。     

Fracture propagation associated with dike emplacement at the skaergaard intrusion,east Greenland

Extensive magmatic activity, including several episodes of dike emplacement, was associated with early Tertiary continental rifting in Eastern Greenland. Exposures of the Skaergaard intrusion host a large number of these dikes as well as a variety of hydrothermal veins. One vein set has a characteristic outcrop expression and is filled with silica-rich chlorites. Relative timing constraints as well as the distribution and geometric relations of these veins relative to the mafic dikes indicate that at least some of these fractures formed during the emplacement of the dikes that cut the intrusion. Calculations based on elastic theory permit modeling of dike geometries observed in the field and prediction of fracture geometries that could be associated with the inflation of these dikes. Extensional fractures may form in the area ahead of the dike termination for a variety of loading conditions. The predicted width to length ratio for the dike as well as the size of the predicted fracture zone increases with increasing magma pressure within the dike and/or increasing differential between the remote principal stresses. For dike geometries similar to those observed in the field, the predicted fracture zone is roughly elliptical in cross-section and is centered in front of the dike termination. The size of the zone perpendicular to the dike trend varies from less than one meter to several meters. Field observations indicate that dike-parallel fractures are locally offset normal to the dike margin by distances of a few centimeters to a few meters. Our analysis implies that at least some of these fractures initiated and propagated ahead of the dikes as they were emplaced. The cooling of these dikes initiated localized hydrothermal systems that formed the vein minerals currently filling the fractures.     

Late Paleoproterozoic basic dikes in the Ulkan-Uchur district, eastern Aldan-Stanovoi Shield: Structural position, composition, and paleogeodynamic setting

Late Paleoproterozoic dikes of the Maimakan Complex were studied in the Ulkan-Uchur district at the eastern margin of the Aldan-Stanovoi Shield. The dikes are parallel or arranged en echelon in the Uchur-Uyan, South Uchur, and Ukikan fields of dike swarms. The spatial distribution of the dike swarms pertaining to the Maimakan Complex in the Ulkan Trough and its framework shows that the area of their intersection is located in the center of the Ulkan granitoid batholith. The basic dikes, which are distinguished by elevated contents of alkali metals, Fe, Ti, and P in combination with a low Mg content, are defined as moderately alkaline rocks transitional from tholeiitic to alkaline series similar in composition to within-plate basalts and E-MORB. The REE pattern is comparable to that of tholeiitic and subalkaline series in extensional settings. Along with the geological data, this indicates that the complex was formed under conditions of intracontinental extension. As follows from geological relationships, the age of dikes is estimated as 1670–1715 Ma.     

Middle Paleozoic basaltic and kimberlitic magmatism in the northwestern shoulder of the Vilyui Rift,Siberia: relations in space and time

A Middle Paleozoic tectonothermal event in the eastern Siberian craton was especially active in the area of the Vilyui rift, where it produced a system of rift basins filled with Devonian–Early Carboniferous volcanics and sediments, as well as long swarms of mafic dikes on the rift shoulders. Basalts occur mostly among Middle Devonian sediments and are much less spread in Early Carboniferous formations. The dolerite dikes of the Vilyui–Markha swarm in the northwestern rift border coexist with the Mirnyi and Nakyn fields of diamond-bearing kimberlites. The voluminous dikes and sills intruded before the emplacement of kimberlites. The Mir kimberlite crosscuts a dolerite sill and a dike in the Mirnyi field, while a complex dolerite dike (monzonite porphyry) cuts through the Nyurba kimberlite in the Nakyn field. Thus, the kimberlites correspond to a longer span of Middle Paleozoic basaltic magmatism. The basalts in Middle Paleozoic sediments have faunal age constraints, but the age of dolerite dikes remains uncertain. The monzonite porphyry dike in the Nyurba kimberlite has been dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method, and the obtained age must be the upper bound of the dike emplacement. The space and time relations between basaltic and kimberlitic magmatism were controlled by Devonian plume–lithosphere interaction.     

Origin of composite dikes in the Gouldsboro granite, coastal Maine

Composite dikes, consisting of aphyric basaltic margins and phenocryst-rich rhyolitic interiors, cut the Gouldsboro granite of coastal Maine at many localities. Limited hybridization (exchange of crystals, commingling, and mixing) occurs in most of the dikes and indicates that the two magmas were contemporaneous with emplacement of rhyolitic magma following closely in time the initial emplacement of the basaltic dike. Petrographic characteristics and geochemistry indicate that the source of the rhyolite was resident magma in the Gouldsboro granite magma chamber. The composite dikes formed when basaltic dikes ruptured the Gouldsboro magma chamber, permitting partly crystallized magma from the margin of the chamber to flow outward into the center of the basaltic dikes. Field relations of similar composite dikes in other areas (e.g., Iceland, Scotland) are consistent with this model. A second type of composite dike (silicic margins with chilled basaltic pillows) commonly cuts mafic intrusions along the Maine coast and probably formed when a granitic dike ruptured an established chamber of mafic magma, permitting resident mafic magma to collapse downward into the still Liquid granitic dike. Most composite dikes have probably formed when a magma chamber was disrupted by a dike of contrasting magma rather than by tapping a stratified magma chamber.     

利用宽谱系岩墙群进行勘查靶区预测的初步尝试: 以南阿拉套山为例

本文提出了一种利用宽谱系岩墙群(WSDS)进行内生金属矿床勘查靶区预测的新方法。南阿拉套山出露有一套由二叠纪煌斑岩质、玄武质、安山质、英安质和流纹质岩墙(脉)组成的岩墙群,可称为宽谱系岩墙群。该岩墙群侵位于花岗质岩基及其围岩中,是区内最晚一期岩浆活动的产物。以下特征暗示岩墙群的形成伴随着大规模含矿流体活动:(1)许多岩墙岩石具有气孔状构造,且含有大量含水暗色矿物; (2)部分岩墙岩石具有多斑斑状结构,基质为隐晶质或玻璃质结构; (3)部分岩墙岩石含有浸染状硫化物; (4)各类岩墙具有相似的不相容元素和成矿元素分配型式; (5)不同时代、不同岩性的地层具有相似的成矿元素分配形式。因此,宽谱系岩墙群及其围岩经受过含矿流体的浸润和改造,可作为确定性找矿标志。岩墙群的空间展布形式同时受区域性裂隙系统和局部性裂隙系统控制,可以解释为岩墙同时侵位于先存裂隙和自生长裂隙中。因此,宽谱系岩墙群是熔体-流体流快速侵位的产物,具有较强的成矿潜力。岩墙的空间展布形式可能暗示了含矿流体的运移方式,因而可以用来预测成矿金属大规模堆积的可能位置:(1)流体在运移路径上与碳酸盐岩相遇的部位; (2)流体在运移路径上与块状少裂隙火成岩体相遇的部位; (3)流体运移路径上适度破碎的断裂交汇部位; (4)流体在运移路径上与高渗透率地层相遇的部位; (5)岩墙密集区的小岩体。据此,可在南阿拉套山划出为六个勘查靶区(A、夏尔敖腊靶区,B、米尔其克岩体靶区,C、勒根乌苏-科克塔舒根乌苏靶区,D、阿尔夏提靶区,E、布图哈马尔西南岩体靶区,F、诺尔特靶区),涵盖了区域矿产调查发现的20个矿点(床)中的8个。如果将预测靶区的范围稍微扩大,则可以涵盖15个矿点(床)。据此,可以认为利用宽谱系岩墙群进行成矿预测是有效的。     

Propagating rift tectonics of a Caledonian marginal basin: Multi-stage seafloor spreading history of the Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite in western Norway

The Late Ordovician Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite in western Norway represents a remnant of the Iapetus oceanic lithosphere that developed in a Caledonian marginal basin. The ophiolite contains three structural domains that display distinctively different crustal architecture that reflects the mode and nature of magmatic and tectonic processes operated during the multi-stage seafloor spreading evolution of this marginal basin. Domain I includes, from top to bottom, an extensive extrusive sequence, a transition zone consisting of dike swarms with screens of pillow breccias, a sheeted dike complex, and plutonic rocks composed mainly of isotropic gabbro and microgabbro. Extrusive rocks include pillow lavas, pillow breccias, and massive sheet flows and are locally sheared and mineralized, containing epidosites, sulfide-sulfate deposits, Fe-oxides, and anhydrite veins, reminiscent of hydrothermal alteration zones on the seafloor along modern mid-ocean ridges. A fossil lava lake in the northern part of the ophiolite consists of a >65-m-thick volcanic sequence composed of a number of separate massive lava units interlayered with pillow lavas and pillow breccia horizons. The NE-trending sheeted dike complex contains multiple intrusions of metabasaltic dikes with one- and two-sided chilled margins and displays a network of both dike-parallel normal and dike-perpendicular oblique-slip faults of oceanic origin. The dike-gabbro boundary is mutually intrusive and represents the root zone of the sheeted dike complex. The internal architecture and rock types of Domain I are analogous to those of intermediate-spreading oceanic crust at modern mid-ocean ridge environments. The ophiolitic units in Domain II include mainly sheeted dikes and plutonic rocks with a general NW structural grain and are commonly faulted against each other, although primary intrusive relations between the sheeted dikes and the gabbros are locally well preserved. The exposures of this domain occur only in the northern and southern parts of the ophiolite complex and are separated by the ENE-trending Domain III, in which isotropic to pegmatitic gabbros and dike swarms are plastically deformed along ENE-striking sinistral shear zones. These shear zones, which locally include fault slivers of serpentinite intrusions, are crosscut by N20°E-striking undeformed basaltic dike swarms that contain xenoliths of gabbroic material. The NW-trending sheeted dike complex in the northern part of Domain II curves into an ENE orientation approaching Domain III in the south. The anomalous nature of deformed crust in Domain III is interpreted to have developed within an oceanic fracture zone or transform fault boundary.REE chemistry of representative extrusive and dike rocks from all three domains indicates N- to E-MORB affinities of their magmas with high Th/Ta ratios that are characteristic of subduction zone environments. The magmatic evolution of Domain I encompasses closed-system fractional crystallization of high-Mg basaltic magmas in small ephemeral chambers, which gradually interconnected to form large chambers in which mixing of primary magmas with more evolved and fractionated magma caused resetting of magma compositions through time. The compositional range from high-Mg basalts to ferrobasalts within Domain I is reminiscent of modern propagating rift basalts. We interpret the NE-trending Domain I as a remnant of an intermediate-spread rift system that propagated northeastwards (in present coordinate system) into a pre-existing oceanic crust, which was developed along the NW-trending doomed rift (Domain II) in the marginal basin. The N20°E dikes laterally intruding into the anomalous oceanic crust in Domain III represent the tip of the rift propagator. The inferred propagating rift tectonics of the Solund-Stavfjord ophiolite is similar to the evolutionary history of the modern Lau back-arc basin in the SW Pacific and suggests a complex magmatic evolution of the Caledonian marginal basin via multi-stage seafloor spreading tectonics.     

Hydrous partial melting in the sheeted dike complex at fast spreading ridges: experimental and natural observations

In ophiolites and in present-day oceanic crust formed at fast spreading ridges, oceanic plagiogranites are commonly observed at, or close to the base of the sheeted dike complex. They can be produced either by differentiation of mafic melts, or by hydrous partial melting of the hydrothermally altered sheeted dikes. In addition, the hydrothermally altered base of the sheeted dike complex, which is often infiltrated by plagiogranitic veins, is usually recrystallized into granoblastic dikes that are commonly interpreted as a result of prograde granulitic metamorphism. To test the anatectic origin of oceanic plagiogranites, we performed melting experiments on a natural hydrothermally altered dike, under conditions that match those prevailing at the base of the sheeted dike complex. All generated melts are water saturated, transitional between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline, and match the compositions of oceanic plagiogranites observed close to the base of the sheeted dike complex. Newly crystallized clinopyroxene and plagioclase have compositions that are characteristic of the same minerals in granoblastic dikes. Published silicic melt compositions obtained in classical MORB fractionation experiments also broadly match the compositions of oceanic plagiogranites; however, the compositions of the coexisting experimental minerals significantly deviate from those of the granoblastic dikes. Our results demonstrate that hydrous partial melting is a likely common process in the root zone of the sheeted dike complex, starting at temperatures exceeding 850°C. The newly formed melt can either crystallize to form oceanic plagiogranites or may be recycled within the melt lens resulting in hybridized and contaminated MORB melts. It represents the main MORB crustal contamination process. The residue after the partial melting event is represented by the granoblastic dikes. Our results support a model with a dynamic melt lens that has the potential to trigger hydrous partial melting reactions in the previously hydrothermally altered sheeted dikes. A new thermometer using the Al content of clinopyroxene is also elaborated.     

中国东南部中生代基性岩脉时空分布与形成机理

中国东南部发育的基性岩脉见于中生代各个时期,其年龄从内陆至沿海逐渐变新,与区内花岗岩年龄有相同的变化趋势,但两者活动高峰期不重合。基性岩脉主要发育于花岗岩体内部的拉裂带,鲜见穿过花岗岩上方或周围的沉积变质盖层。中生代各时期的基性岩脉与相应时期的中酸性和基性火山岩浆活动具有清晰的分带现象。进一步研究表明,基性岩脉与同期基性火山岩应是同源不同相的产物,而中酸性喷发的岩浆与基性喷发(侵入)的岩浆,则可能分别来自壳内熔融层和壳下(地幔)熔融层或壳内岩浆层的上部和下部。中酸性与基性岩浆活动的"错峰"现象和基性岩脉带的"迁移"现象,均与本区中生代陆壳系统的内能变化有关。     

岩土力学参数空间变异性的集合卡尔曼滤波估值

岩土参数具有结构性和随机性的空间变异特征,该特征导致岩土参数具有不确定性。以地质统计学作为岩土参数空间变异性分析的理论基础,将分布于研究区的岩土参数视为区域化变量,变异函数既描述了岩土参数整体的空间结构性变化,又描述了其局部的随机性变化,用变异函数理论模型作为描述岩土参数空间变异规律的数学模型。引入集合卡尔曼滤波（EnKF）分析方法,利用时空分布的观测数据,对岩土参数空间变异性进行估值。数值算例表明,EnKF能够有效地融合观测数据,较好地提供岩土参数空间变异性的估值。     

Adaptive neuro-fuzzy prediction of the optimum parameters of protective spur dike

This study proposes a new approach for determining the optimum dimensions of a protective spur dike to mitigate the amount of scour around existing spur dikes. Several parameters of a protective spur dike were studied to determine their optimum values, including length, angle, and distance. Also the effect of changes of flow intensity and sediment size were examined. The main objective of this article was to predict the optimum values of protective spur dikes to attain the best performance. To predict the parameters of protective spur dikes for controlling the scour around spur dikes, we used the adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system method to construct a process that simulates the optimal parameters of a protective spur dike, including the actual length of the protective spur dike, the actual length of the main spur dikes, the distance between the protective spur dike and the first spur dike, the angle between the protective spur dike and the direction of flow, the intensity of the flow, and median size of the bed sediments. This intelligent estimator was implemented using MATLAB/Simulink, and the performances were investigated. The simulation results presented in this paper show the effectiveness of the developed method.     

岩土力学参数空间变异性的集合卡尔曼滤波佶值

岩土参数具有结构性和随机性的空间变异特征，该特征导致岩土参数具有不确定性。以地质统计学作为岩土参数空间变异性分析的理论基础，将分布于研究区的岩土参数视为区域化变量，变异函数既描述了岩土参数整体的空间结构性变化，又描述了其局部的随机性变化，用变异函数理论模型作为描述岩土参数空间变异规律的数学模型。引入集合卡尔曼滤波（EnKF）分析方法，利用时空分布的观测数据，对岩土参数空间变异性进行估值。数值算例表明，EnKF能够有效地融合观测数据，较好地提供岩土参数空间变异性的估值。     

扬子克拉通黄陵背斜南部～860 Ma岩墙的成因及地质意义

首次报道了扬子克拉通黄陵背斜南部由辉绿岩脉、花岗闪长岩脉和正长花岗岩脉组成的新元古代早期小型岩墙.辉绿岩脉和花岗闪长岩脉的锆石U-Pb定年结果分别为856±6.4 Ma和860±6.0 Ma.全岩主量和微量元素数据显示岩墙中辉绿岩具有高Pb含量,且Ba/Nb和La/Nb比值变化较大,而花岗闪长岩脉和正长花岗岩脉样品的Y和Nb含量较低,结合继承性锆石年龄分布特征,暗示岩墙形成过程中遭受了不同程度的年轻岛弧地壳物质混染.黄陵南部～860 Ma小型岩墙的发现,表明扬子克拉通在早于该时期已进入后碰撞的伸展构造环境.综合区域已有资料,认为扬子克拉通前寒武纪基底的裂解在时空上均表现出较大差异.     

The dunite bodies, websterite and orthopyroxenite dikes of the Leka ophiolite complex, Norway

Summary The investigated mantle section of the Leka ophiolite complex extends 1.4 km from and 1.1 km along the exposed Moho. The foliated peridotite contains numerous tabular and elongated dunite bodies, orthopyroxenite dikes, websterite veins, and dikes. The foliation of the peridotite is inclined by about 45° to the Moho. The dunite bodies and the dikes cut the foliation at low angles. The dunite bodies vary in width from 0.1 to 50 m and in length from 10 m to more than 1 km. Wider dunite bodies are commonly surrounded by 0 to 1.0 m wide margins of dunitized peridotite. Websterite veins may be present outside these margins. Apart from sporadic chromite layers the dunite is very homogenous. The dunite bodies are considered to have formed by deposition of olivine along the walls of dikes originally containing tholeiitic melt. The tholeiitic melt at first heated the peridotitic sidewalls so that they became partially molten and dunitized. The ascending magma then eroded the sidewalls and removed olivine as xenocrysts. When the ascent rate decreased, the temperature of the sidewalls decreased, so that olivine (Fo_89–92) began to crystallize along the dike walls. There is also evidence for percolative melt migration along foliation planes, however, the largest proportion of the melts intruded along dikes. The websterite dikes are mostly 1 to 4 cm wide and 3 to 20 m long and dispersed with mutual distances of 20–50 m. The websterite veins and dikes probably originated from melts that were generated along the heated sidewalls of the dunite bodies. The 0.02 to 10 m wide orthopyroxenite dikes have exceptionally high MgO contents for their SiO₂ contents; about 36 wt.% MgO and 50 wt.% SiO₂. They may have formed as segregates from a SiO₂-rich magma, although the parent magma does not appear to have been boninitic. The parent magma may instead have formed by second stage partial melting of depleted lherzolite.     

黄河下游标准化堤防纵向裂缝成因与防治

因放淤固堤导致河南、山东堤防多处出现纵向裂缝,严重影响了黄河下游标准化堤防工程建设的质量与进度。通过开展现场调研与室内试验,基于饱和-非饱和渗流-应力耦合及湿化变形理论,探讨黄河大堤纵向裂缝的形成原因,据此制定相应的预防与治理对策。研究表明,淤背施工过快是导致大堤开裂的根本原因,堤身湿化变形、淤区排水不畅、堤顶堆载、堤顶重载车辆作用等加剧了堤身裂缝的形成与扩展;控制淤背施工速率、加速淤区排水、避免堤顶堆载等是预防裂缝的有效措施;锥探灌浆、开挖回填等方法可用于治理裂缝。     

Dike swarms and related igneous complexes in the Urals

The dike swarms of the entire Urals are classified for the first time; the related igneous complexes associated with them in space and time are named. The following types and chronological levels of the Uralian dikes are distinguished (proper names are given after type localities). The epicontinental type comprises the Middle Riphean Mashak, Late Riphean Arsha-Serebryanka, Late Cambrian-Early Ordovician Kidryasovo-Lemva, Ordovician-Silurian Ushat, Devoninan Inzer-Timaiz (the most extended of all), Early Carboniferous Magnitogorsk-Mugodzhary, and Triassic Borisovo dike swarms. Many of them are probably related to plume events. The existence of the Early Riphean dike complex remains unclear. Oceanic (spreading or suprasubduction) dike-in-dike type: Ordovician Man’ya oceanic type, Devonian Aktogai backarc and Khabarny suprasubduction types. The igneous complexes associated with dike swarms are rather diverse. In addition to rhyolite dikes, in many cases determining the contrasting character of magmatism, large comagmatic gabbro and gabbro-granite intrusions are noted, as well as minor intrusions of subalkali granitoids, syenites, and, apparently, carbonatites and kimberlites. Flood basalt fields are noted at the periphery of the Urals, implying the occurrence of a feeding dike swarm beneath them.     

非等长淹没丁坝群局部水头损失的计算

根据水槽中淹没丁坝群的水流流态,将下坝附近的水流进行分区,导出淹没丁坝下游主槽流速沿程变化公式,并且结合由淹没单丁坝时得出的水头损失计算公式,可以对不同坝长、坝高和丁坝间距、淹没丁坝群的局部水头损失进行计算.     

Indirect environmental effects of dikes on estuarine tidal channels: Thinking outside of the dike for habitat restoration and monitoring

While the most obvious effects of dike construction and marsh conversion are those affecting the converted land (direct or intended effects), less immediately apparent effects also occur seaward of dikes (indirect or unintended effects). I analyzed historical photos of the Skagit River delta marshes (Washingto, U.S.) and compared changes in estuarine marsh and tidal channel surface area from 1956–2000 in the Wiley slough area of the South fork Skagit delta, and from 1937–2000 in the North Fork delta. Dike construction in the late 1950s caused the loss of 80 ha of estuarine marsh and 6.7 ha of tidal channel landward of the Wiley Slough dikes. A greater amount of tidal channel surface area, 9.6 ha, was lost seaward of the dikes. Similar losses were observed for two smaller North Fork tidal channel systems. Tidal channels far from dikes did not show comparable changes in channel surface areas. These results are consistent with hydraulic geometry theory, which predicts that diking reduces tidal flushing in the undiked channel remnants and this results in sedimentation. Dikes may have significant seaward effects on plants and animals associated with tidal channel habitat. Another likely indirect dike effect is decreased sinuosity in a distributary channel of the South Fork Skagit River adjacent to and downstream of the Wiley Slough dikes, compared to distributary channels upstream or distant from the dikes. Loss of floodplain area to diking and marsh conversion prevents flood energy dissipation over the marsh surface. The distributary channal has responded to greater flood energy by increasing mean channel width and decreasing sinuosity. Restoration of diked areas should consider historic habitat loss swaward of dikes, as well as possible benefits to these areas from dike breaching or removal. Habitat restoration by breaching or removal of dikes should be monitored in areas directly affected by dikes, areas indirectly affected, and distinct reference areas.