Vesuvianite-wollastonite-grossular-bearing calc-silicate rock near Tatapani,Surguja district,Chhattisgarh

This paper reports the occurrence of vesvianite + wollastonite + grossular + diopside + microcline + quartz assemblage in an enclave of calc-silicate rocks occurring within quartzofeldspathic gneiss near Tatapani in the western part of Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex. The enclave contains phlogopite-absent and phlogopite-bearing calc-silicate rocks, the latter being much more abundant than the former. The above assemblage occurs in the phlogopite-absent rock. Phlogopite-bearing rock contains the assemblage phlogopite + salite + microcline + plagioclase + quartz. A strong schistosity is developed in both the calc-silicate rocks and the minerals are syntectonic with the major foliation-forming event in the area. The vesuvianite-bearing assemblage is formed by amphibolite facies regional metamorphism of a calcareous protolith at pressure < 4 kbar and X_{CO 2} (fluid) < 0.15.     

P-T-X conditions of calc-silicate formation: evidence from fluid inclusions and phase equilibria; Llano Uplift, central Texas, USA

Abstract The Llano Uplift in central Texas is a Grenville aged (c. 1.1 Ga) metamorphic terrane consisting predominantly of amphibolite facies mineral assemblages. The formation of these assemblages has been attributed to the emplacement of relatively late granite plutons throughout the area. Two types of granitic intrusion have previously been recognized: (1) Town Mountain Granites, which occur as relatively large, circular-shaped bodies of coarse-grained granite, and (2) Younger Granites which are present as smaller and more irregular bodies of finer-grained granite. In the central part of the uplift, wollastonite-bearing calc-silicate rocks occur within the Valley Spring Gneiss. The development of these calc-silicate rocks has been linked to infiltrating fluids presumably derived from spatially associated Younger Granites. The stability of coexisting quartz, calcite, wollastonite, grossular and anorthite and coexisting quartz, calcite, wollastonite, andradite and hedenbergite shows that the calc-silicate rocks equilibrated under H₂O-rich conditions with χCO₂ <0.10. Fluid inclusions present within the calc-silicate minerals are H₂O-rich with salinities of <17 wt% equivalent NaCl. The absence of any detectable CO₂ in the fluid inclusions may indicate entrapment of the inclusions at lower pressures and more H₂O-rich conditions compared to the stability of the peak metamorphic mineral assemblage. Homogenization temperatures, measured for texturally primary inclusions, range from 360 to 368° C corresponding to a density range from 0.53 to 0.82 g/cm³. Isochores for these fluid inclusions, when combined with the stability of the solid-solid equilibria Grs + Qtz = Wo + An, yield formation conditions of 500–550° C at 1–2 kbar. This indicates that the granitic intrusions involved in the formation of the Blount Mountain calc-silicates were emplaced at a pressure of at least 1–2 kbar.     

Potassium Tobelite As Indicator of the Postsedimentary Transformation of Coal-Bearing Sedimentary Complexes

The rare mineral, potassium tobelite being the NH₄-bearing mica, was first described in Lower Carboniferous coal-bearing rocks of the Egorshin–Kamensk district on the eastern slope of the Urals. It was formed from kaolinite and pyrophyllite at temperature less than 500°C and pressure about 2000 atm. The formation of tobelite was probably favored by postsedimentary stresses. Owing to sharp increase in pressure, gases were released from organic matter of the coal-bearing sequence and transformed into ammonia, which was subsequently incorporated as NH⁺ ₄in the structure of clay minerals. The potassium tobelite is an indicator of high-grade metamorphism (up to anthracite rank) of the organic matter in coal-bearing sequences.     

Distribution of ammonium in minerals of metamorphic and granitic rocks

Sixty-nine analyses are given for NH₄ in minerals of metamorphic and granitic rocks mostly from the Ryoke belt, Japan. The distribution of NH₄ in coexisting minerals is quite systematic, suggesting that NH₄ is one of the stable geochemical components in high temperature processes.Biotite has the highest content of NH₄, followed by muscovite, K-feldspar and plagioclase. Pure quartz is almost free from NH₄. Calcic plagioclase contains less NH₄ than does sodic plagioclase. The partition coefficients $\text{D}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>Pl</mtext><mtext>Bi</mtext>}}$, $\text{D}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>Kf</mtext><mtext>Bi</mtext>}}$ and $\text{D}{}^{\mathrm{<mtext>Kf</mtext><mtext>Bi</mtext>}}$ are, on the average, 0.11, 0.38 and 0.43 respectively. The fractionation of NH₄ in these minerals is quite similar to that of Rb but much smaller than that of Cs.Distribution of NH₄ as well as those of Rb and Cs appears to be explained by its ionic radius and the shortest cation-O distances in alkali positions of minerals.     

K2O prograde zoning pattern in clinopyroxene from the Kokchetav diamond-grade metamorphic rocks: Missing part of metamorphic history and location of second critical end point for calc-silicate system

Despite extensive studies of calc-silicate rocks of the Kokchetav massif, there is no satisfactory explanation of the origin of potassium-bearing clinopyroxene in alkali poor metamorphic rocks. In this paper we report the finding of potassium-bearing clinopyroxene with prograde zonation (K₂O increases from core to rim) from diamond-grade, but diamond-free UHP calc-silicate rocks of the Kokchetav massif. We believe that the crystallization of potassium-bearing clinopyroxene started on the prograde stage and slightly prior to the peak of UHP metamorphism. Thus, prograde metamorphic history is only traceable in diamond-free UHP calc-silicate rocks, while in diamond-bearing UHPM rocks it is completely reset. Fluid and polyphase solid inclusions, originally representing melt inclusions, occur in the core of potassium-bearing clinopyroxene and imply that melt and fluid may coexist in calc-silicate rocks even at 1000–1100 °C and 6–7 GPa.     

Quantification of Cl,Br and I in Geological Materials by NH4F Digestion: Comparison with Rapid Acid Digestion

The lack of analytical techniques for halogens in geological materials is mainly due to the loss of analytes during sample preparation. This study describes a rapid bulk rock digestion method (NH₄F digestion) for determination of the abundances of Cl, Br and I in geological materials by SF-ICP-MS. During high temperature (200–240 °C) digestion, NH₃ released from the decomposition of molten NH₄F can effectively prevent the loss of halogens released from geological samples. Chlorine, Br and I were not lost during NH₄F digestion at 220 °C for 0.25–6 h. The limits of quantitation for NH₄F digestion were 2.8, 0.018 and 0.003 μg g^-1 Cl, Br and I, respectively. Most results for halogens in geological reference materials by NH₄F digestion were in agreement with their certified values, confirming that the high-performance rapid bulk rock NH₄F digestion has sufficient digestion capability to extract Cl, Br and I from rocks, sediments and soils. In comparison, results obtained following acid digestion showed that HNO₃ + HF digestion could effectively extract Br and I from soil and sediment samples, and that HNO₃ acid digestion is only suitable to use for the determination of Br and I in soil samples.     

Wollastonite at Nuliyam,Kerala, southern India: a reassessment of CO2-infiltration and charnockite formation at a classic locality

The occurrence of a charnockitised felsic gneiss adjacent to a marble/calc-silicate horizon at Nuliyam, southern India, has been cited in recent literature as a classic example of the dehydration of crustal rocks resulting from the advective infiltration of CO₂-rich fluids generated from a local carbonate source. Petrographic study of the Nuliyam calc-silicate, however, reveals it to consist of abundant wollastonite and scapolite and contain locally discordant veins rich in wollastonite. At the pressure—temperature conditions proposed for charnockite formation in recent studies, 5 kbar and 725°C, this wollastonite-bearing mineral assemblage was stable in the presence of a fluid phase only if X _CO2 was near 0.25 and could not have coexisted with the fluid causing biotite breakdown and charnockite development in adjacent rocks (X _CO2>0.85). The stable coexistence of wollastonite and scapolite prohibits the calc-silicate from being a source for fluid driving charnockitisation at the required P-T conditions. Textural observations such as the limited replacement of wollastonite by calcite+quartz symplectites and mosaics, are consistent with late fluid infiltration into the calc-silicate. The extensive isotopic, chemical and mineral abundance data of Jackson and Santosh (1992) are re-interpreted and integrated with these observations to develop a model involving the infiltration of an externally derived CO₂-rich fluid during high-temperature decompression. Increased charnockite development next to the calc-silicate has arisen because the calc-silicate acted as a relatively unreactive and impermeable barrier to fluid transport and caused fluid ponding beneath antiformal closures. The Nuliyam charnockite/calc-silicate locality is an example of a structural trap in a metamorphic setting rather than a site where charnockite formation can be attributed to local fluid sources.     

Metamorphic CO2 production from calc-silicate rocks via garnet-forming reactions in the CFAS–H2O–CO2 system

The type and kinetics of metamorphic CO₂-producing processes in metacarbonate rocks is of importance to understand the nature and magnitude of orogenic CO₂ cycle. This paper focuses on CO₂ production by garnet-forming reactions occurring in calc-silicate rocks. Phase equilibria in the CaO–FeO–Al₂O₃–SiO₂–CO₂–H₂O (CFAS–CO₂–H₂O) system are investigated using P–T phase diagrams at fixed fluid composition, isobaric T–X(CO₂) phase diagram sections and phase diagram projections in which fluid composition is unconstrained. The relevance of the CFAS–CO₂–H₂O garnet-bearing equilibria during metamorphic evolution of calc-silicate rocks is discussed in the light of the observed microstructures and measured mineral compositions in two representative samples of calc-silicate rocks from eastern Nepal Himalaya. The results of this study demonstrate that calc-silicate rocks may act as a significant CO₂ source during prograde heating and/or early decompression. However, if the system remains closed, fluid–rock interactions may induce hydration of the calc-silicate assemblages and the in situ precipitation of graphite. The interplay between these two contrasting processes (production of CO₂-rich fluids vs. carbon sequestration through graphite precipitation) must be considered when dealing with a global estimate of the role exerted by decarbonation processes on the orogenic CO₂ cycle.     

Genesis of wollastonite- and grandite-rich skarns in a suite of marble-calc-silicate rocks from Sittampundi, Tamil Nadu: constraints on the P–T–fluid regime in parts of the Pan-African mobile belt of South India

The Pan-African tectonothermal activities in areas near Sittampundi, south India, are characterized by metamorphic changes in an interlayered sequence of migmatitic metapelites, marble and calc-silicate rocks. This rock sequence underwent multiple episodes of folding, and was intruded by granite batholiths during and subsequent to these folding events. The marble and the calc-silicate rocks develop a variety of skarns, which on the basis of mineralogy; can be divided into the following types: Type I: wollastonite?+?clinopyroxene (mg#?=?71–73)?+?grandite (16–21 mol% Adr)?+?quartz?±?calcite, Type II: grandite (25–29 mol% Adr )?+?clinopyroxene (mg#?=?70)?+?calcite?+?quartz, and Type III: grandite (36–38 mol% Adr)?+?clinopyroxene (mg#?=?55–65)?+?epidote?+?scapolite?+?calcite?+?quartz. Type I skarn is 2–10 cm thick, and is dominated by wollastonite (>70 vol%) and commonly occurs as boudinaged layers parallel to the regional foliation Sn₁ related to the Fn₁ folds. Locally, thin discontinuous lenses and stringers of this skarn develop along the axial planes of Fn₂ folds. The Type II skarn, on the other hand, is devoid of wollastonite, rich in grandite garnet (40–70 vol%) and developed preferentially at the interface of clinopyroxene-rich calc-silicates layers and host marble during the later folding event. Reaction textures and the phase compositional data suggest the following reactions in the skarns: 1. calcite?+?SiO₂?→?wollastonite?+?V, 2. calcite?+?clinopyroxene?+?O₂?→?grandite?+?SiO₂?+?V, 3. scapolite?+?calcite?+?quartz?+?clinopyroxene?+?O₂?→?grandite?+?V and 4. epidote?+?calcite?+?quartz?+?clinopyroxene?+?O₂?→?grandite?+?V Textural relations and composition of phases demonstrate that (a) silica metasomatism of the host marble by infiltration of aqueous fluids (X_CO2?<?0.15) led to production of large volumes of wollastonite in the wollastonite-rich skarn whereas mobility of FeO, SiO₂ and CaO across the interface of marble and calc-silicate and infiltration of aqueous fluids (X_CO2?<?0.35) were instrumental for the formation of grandite skarns. Composition of minerals in type II skarn indicates that Al₂O₃ was introduced in the host marble by the infiltrating fluid. Interpretation of mineral assemblages observed in the interlayered metapelites and the calcareous rocks in pseudosections, isothermal P-X_CO2 and isobaric T-X_CO2 diagrams tightly bracket the “peak” metamorphic conditions at c.9?±?1 kbar and 750°?±?30°C. Subsequent to ‘peak’ metamorphic conditions, the rocks were exhumed on a steeply decompressive P–T path. The estimated ‘peak’ P–T estimates are inconsistent with the “extreme” metamorphic conditions (>11 kbar and >950°C) inferred for the Pan-African tectonothermal events from the neighboring areas. Field and petrological attributes of these skarn rocks are consistent with the infiltration of aqueous fluid predominantly during the Fn₁ folding event at or close to the ‘peak’ metamorphic conditions. Petrological features indicate that the buffering capacity of the rocks was lost during the formation of type I and II skarns. However, the host rock could buffer the composition of the permeated fluids during the formation of type III skarn. Aqueous fluids derived from prograde metamorphism of the metapelites seem to be the likely source for the metasomatic fluids that led to the formation of the skarn rocks.     

Stratabound tungsten mineralization in regional metamorphic calc-silicate rocks from the Austroalpine Crystalline Complex,Austria

Stratabound tungsten mineralization in regional metamorphic calc-silicate rocks of probably Lower Paleozoic age is described from the polymetamorphic Austroalpine Crystalline Complex (ACC) of the Eastern Alps. Scheelite-bearing calc-silicate rocks which are often associated with marbles and tourmalinites are intercalated conformably with metaclastic rocks. Alkalipoor calc-silicate rocks with high amounts of clinozoisite/ zoisite, grossular, quartz, plagioclase, etc. are the most important host rocks for tungsten mineralization. These unusual calc-silicate rocks are products of regional metaorphism and are interpreted as reaction skarns. They have formed in the presence of a water-dominated fluid phase with very low X_CO2.In the Koralpe estimated P-T conditions are 650–700 °C at 5–7 kb. The mineralogical composition and the mineral zoning of the calc-silicate rocks is controlled by the degree of the Hercynian and Eoalpine metamorphism. There are no signs of graniteelated skarn formation. Tungsten preconcentration is thought to be syngenetic/syndiagenetic. It is genetically linked to exhalative hydrothermal processes in other Lower Paleozoic terrains of the Eastern Alps.     

Petrology of calc-silicate rocks from Koduru,Andhra Pradesh,India

Mineral assemblages, rock and mineral chemistry, and mineral reactions, in calc-silicate rocks from Koduru area, Andhra Pradesh, India are discussed. Mineralogical and bulk chemical differences indicate 3 calc-silicate rock types — type I with K feldspar+calcite+wollastonite+quartz+scapolite+diopside_ss +andradite_ss+sphene, has relatively high rock oxidation ratios. Type II is a highly calcic variety with high rock MgFe ratios, and has K feldspar+calcite+wollastonite+quartz+scapolite + diopside_ss±grossularite_ss+sphene+zoisite. Type III has K feldspar +calcite+wollastonite+quartz+scapolite+diopside_ss +sphene+hornblende+magnetite, and has relatively low oxidation ratio and low MgFe ratio. The 3 calc-silicate rock types have originated as mixtures of limestone/dolomite/marl.Diopside was produced by a reaction involving Ca-amphibole +calcite+quartz, and reversed during retrogression. Andradite_ss in type I rocks was produced at the expense of hedenbergitic component of pyroxene in a continuous reaction as a consequence of increase in the oxygen content of the original sediment relative to type III. Calcite+quartz reacted to give wollastonite. During cooling an influx of water caused scapolite to alter to zoisite.     

Magnetic susceptibility of volcanic rocks in geothermal areas: application potential in geothermal exploration studies for identification of rocks and zones of hydrothermal alteration

Magnetic susceptibility and petrographic studies of drilled rock cuttings from two geothermal wells (Az-26 and Az-49) of the important electricity-generating geothermal system, Los Azufres, Mexico, were carried out to determine the relation between the magnetic susceptibility of rocks, the concentration of magnetic minerals and hydrothermal alteration. For this purpose, low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (χ _lf) was measured and compared its distribution trends with those of magnetic and Fe–Mg silicate minerals, and with the extent of hydrothermal alteration in rocks of the two geothermal wells. The study indicates a decrease in χ _lf values with depth in the two geothermal wells corresponding with: (1) an increase in the reservoir temperature and hydrothermal alteration; and (2) a decrease in the concentrations of Fe–Mg silicates and opaque minerals. The data suggest that ferromagnesian minerals and opaque minerals like ilmenite are the main contributors to the χ _lf of rocks. The decrease in χ _lf, ilmenite, and Fe–Mg mineral contents with an increase in the hydrothermal alteration degree, pyrite and haematite contents suggests the hydrothermal alteration of ilmenite and Fe–Mg minerals (characteristic of high χ _lf values) to pyrite, haematite and other opaque minerals (with low χ _lf values). The interaction of hydrothermal fluids with rocks results in the hydrothermal alteration of primary minerals. In a geothermal area, an anomaly of low magnetic susceptibility values of rocks in a homogenous litho unit characterized by high magnetic susceptibility may suggest hydrothermal alteration. Magnetic susceptibility can be a useful parameter, during the initial stages of geothermal exploration, in identifying hydrothermally altered rocks and zones of hydrothermal alteration both at the surface and from drilled wells in geothermal systems.     

Ammonium in biotite from metamorphic and granitic rocks of Japan

Ammonium contents of biotites from metamorphic and granitic rocks of Japan have been determined, and correlated with the ${}^{18}\text{O}{}^{16}\text{O}$ ratios of the rocks.NH₄ contents of biotites averaged 22 ppm in granitic rocks of non-metamorphic terranes, 67 ppm in granitic rocks in the Ryoke metamorphic belt, and 279 ppm in metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of the Ryoke belt. In granitic rocks, enrichment of NH₄ in biotites is a result of the interaction between the granitic magma and surrounding sedimentary rocks. In metasedimentary rocks, the high NH₄ content in biotites is due to inheritance from original organic material in sedimentary rocks.Biotites from migmatites of the Ryoke belt contain more NH₄ (average, 475 ppm) than those from metasedimentary rocks. This suggests the existence of a metamorphic fluid or anatectic magma enriched in NH₄.     

Two zoning patterns in tin deposits

Two zoning patterns in tin deposits are proposed according to geochemical environments.

1. Acidic zoning pattern is characteristic of tin deposits associated with sialic rocks and tin-bearing veins in carbonate rocks. Six zones may be recognized from the granite mass outwards: (1) Nb?Ta?(Li?Be?Mo), (2) Sn, (3) W?(Sn), (4) Cu?Pb?Zn?(Bi), (5) Sb?Hg, and (6) Au?Ag. This kind of zoning is related with the temperature difference involved in the deposition of various ore minerals in an acidic (or neutral) geochemical enviroment. From the granite outwards, the temperature decreases gradually with increasing distance from the heat source.
2. Alkaline zoning pattern is typical of tin deposits occurring in calcareous and magnesian carbonate rocks. Three zones can be recognized from the granite mass outwards: (1) Cu?Zn?Bi, (2) Sn, and (3) Fe?Pb?Zn?Cu. A calcium-and magnesium-rich alkaline environment is responsible for this zoning pattern. In this case the normal sequence of mineral formation will be greatly changed owing to neutralization when an acidic ore-forming solution enters the alkaline environment.

Zoning structure in tin deposits is very complex and highly variable, depending on: (1) the geochemical environment in which the deposits are formed, (2) the type of shield beds, and (3) the character of ore-forming solutions. However, there are some known examples showing similar zoning patterns for the deposits that are similar in these three aspects.     

A new occurrence of garnetiferous skarn rocks in Saudi Arabia: a case study from Bahrah area, Jeddah–Makkah Al Mukaramah highway

Metacarbonate rocks (including marble and skarn deposits) at Bahrah area are confined to a Precambrian island-arc suite made up mostly of massive basalts and volcaniclastics aligned in a NE-trending belt. The marbles are either pure (almost made up of calcite) or contain considerable amounts of tremolite, actinolite, epidote, and diopside. Garnet-bearing rocks at Bahrah area are classified into garnetiferous marble and skarn calc-silicate assemblages that are described here for the first time. The calc-silicates become more abundant when the marble becomes interbedded with foliated metabasalt. Such contact is delineated by an epidote zone of variable thickness. Microscopically, the skarns are enriched in Ca-bearing minerals such as grossular garnet, epidote, titanite, diopside, and augitic salite. There are evidence that calc-silicate skarns were formed due to a thermal effect of a concealed underground shallow granitic intrusion. The basaltic rocks furnished Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, Ti⁴⁺, and Al³⁺ that were first concentrated in the epidote zone. This was followed by pervasive replacement of epidote by large idiomorphic garnet (grossularite) that attains up to ～1.5 cm wide. It is evident that diopside is earlier than garnet with no replacement fabrics between the two minerals. Two types of titanite (sphene) can be distinguished: The first is secondary in the metabasalt host where titanite develops after titanomagnetite during regional metamorphism (i.e., metamorphic). On the other hand, the second type of titanite is found in the garnet-bearing calc-silicate skarn where it is typically euhedral with no link to any opaque phase and it is believed to be formed due to the event of superimposed thermal metamorphism (i.e., metasomatic). There are several evidence of the thermal metamorphic effect such as distinct granoblastic and annealing textures and K-metasomatism and formation of phlogopite at the expense of tremolite in the marble, in addition to poikiloblastic hornblende in the metabasalt host with distinct recrystallization. Also, there are some evidence of shearing such as brecciation along microshear planes, microfolding, introduction of fine euhedral pyrite, and presence of injected silica postdating crystallization of garnet in the calc-silicates.     

Geochemistry of stratabound scheelite mineralisation and associated calc-silicate rocks from Chitral,NE Hindu Kush,Pakistan

Tungsten mineralisation in the NE Hindu Kush terrain occurs 8 km NW of the Tirich Boundary Zone suture between Karakoram and Eastern Hindu Kush. Scheelite occurs mainly in calc-silicate rocks and subordinately in tourmalinites associated with metasediments at Miniki Gol, Chitral. The investigated area underwent two phases of deformation and was metamorphosed up to sillimanite grade, followed by the emplacement of leucogranite and hydrothermal activity. The mineral assemblages of the calc-silicate rocks, comprising clinozoisite, quartz, calcic-amphibole, plagioclase, chlorite, biotite, calcite, sphene, garnet and scheelite, clearly express a skarn type environment. The coexistence of the scheelite grains with clinozoisite and the occurrence of anomalous values of ZrO₂ and Ta₂O₅ in the scheelite grains imply a genetic link between the scheelite mineralisation and post-magmatic hydrothermal fluids. The enrichment of Zr, Hf, Be, Sn, W, Th, U, Ga, Nb, F and Y along with total REE in the scheelite-bearing calc-silicate rocks compared with the associated metasediments assigns that the rocks at Miniki Gol have undergone a pronounced hydrothermal activity. Strong positive correlations between Zr, Hf, Nb, Y, Ta, F and REE, and the mobility of REE are consistent with this consideration. Aqueous fluid inclusions in the scheelite-bearing calc-silicate rocks display very low salinity, suggesting a mixing of magmatic fluids with meteoric water. The formation of intergrown scheelite and clinozoisite indicates a high pH and CO₂-deficient fluid. The tungsten mineralization may be related to the Miniki Gol leucogranite which occurs at a distance of only 400 m.     

Significance of graphite inclusion occurrence in the minerals of the San Miguel skarn for the Palaeoproterozoic basement of Tandilia Belt (Argentina) and for the Río de la Plata Craton

Graphite in Archaean-Palaeoproterozoic rocks has been a subject of interest since it could represent an evidence of early life on Earth. In the Palaeoproterozoic basement of the Tandilia Belt, graphite was found both in fluid inclusions (FI) hosted in the San Miguel skarn calc-silicate minerals, and as solid inclusions in calcite crystals from the protolithic marble (a¹³C enriched carbonate from the “Lomagundi-Jatuli event”). FI microthermometry and oxygen stable isotope ratios indicated the skarn minerals formation within the range of 630–650 °C (at ∼5 kbars) and ∼642–654 °C, respectively. Also, the characterisation of the metasomatic fluid (of a low salinity <7 wt% NaCl eq. NaClH₂O/NaClKClH₂O aqueous system) pointed out that the zonal crystallisation pattern shown by the skarn minerals (wollastonite-vesuvianite, grossular-diopside-calcite and diopside-calcite zones in the exoskarn, and grossular-diopside and diopside-calcic plagioclase zones in the endoskarn) responds to the increase of the involved cation activity gradients (Ca²⁺-Si⁴⁺-Mg²⁺-Fe^2+/3+-Al³⁺) and not to significant changes in the temperature or concentration of CO₂ in the system. Variation in the crystallinity degree of the graphite hosted in the skarn minerals and in marble calcite, shown by Raman spectroscopy, would indicate that the graphite could have been formed from the ripening of organic matter present in the sedimentary rocks during the metamorphic-metasomatic event (Transamazonian Orogeny). In this sense, the increase of the organic carbon productivity in the oceans during the Palaeoproterozoic, represented by the “Lomagundi-Jatuli event”, would support this graphite origin and also the possible existence of a marine sedimentary basin in the previous stages of the Río de la Plata amalgamation (Siderian-Rhyacian), in the San Miguel area of the Tandilia Belt.     

Thermal simulation of basic volcanic fluid influence on different source rocks

Based on thermal simulation experiment, interactions between volcanic fluids and source rocks were studied. Gas generations in the dry system and fluid system under different temperatures were analyzed. The results showed that the various types of source rocks are similar in composition, containing gaseous C1-C5 hydrocarbons, H2 and CO2 whose gas yields increase with increasing temperature. The gas yield of source rocks of type I is the high- est, followed by type II, and that of source rocks of type III is the lowest, indicating that the yield of hydrocarbon gases is related to their hydrocarbon generating potential. Although the generating potential of type III is the lowest, it can still be regarded as a useful gas source when it is buried deeply enough. The basic volcanic fluid restrains the generation of gaseous hydrocarbons in different types of source rocks, but promotes the generation of inorganic gases.     

Oxygen isotope composition and geothermometry of granulite to greenschist facies metamorphic rocks: a study from the Neoproterozoic collision-related nappe system, south of São Francisco Craton, SE Brazil

Oxygen isotope studies were carried out across units of a Neoproterozoic nappe system, south of São Francisco Craton. A temperature decrease toward the base of the system is found, consistent with a previously recognized inverted metamorphic pattern. The tectonic contact of the basal unit and the reworked southern São Francisco craton show a steep temperature gradient, suggesting that low temperature thrusting acted as the dominant tectonic process. The contrasts between the δ¹⁸O values of the Três Pontas-Varginha and Carmo da Cachoeira nappes and the differences among the samples and minerals are consistent with the preservation of sedimentary isotopic composition during metamorphism. The small differences in the δ¹⁸O values between the undeformed and the deformed calc-silicate samples (1.6‰) suggest that the δ¹⁸O value of mylonitization fluids was close to that which equilibrated with the metamorphic assemblage. The distinct δ¹⁸O values of metapelitic and calc-silicate samples and the great temperature difference from one type to the other indicate that no large-scale fluid interaction processes occurred during metamorphism. Oxygen isotopic estimations of both Três Pontas-Varginha undeformed rocks and Carmo da Cachoeira unaltered equivalents indicate δ¹⁸O values of up to 18‰. Comparison between these values and those from the ‘basement’ orthogneisses (8.3–8.5‰) indicates the latter are not sources for the metapelites.     

The Itataia phosphate-uranium deposit (Ceará, Brazil) new petrographic,geochemistry and isotope studies

The Itataia phosphate-uranium deposit is located in Santa Quitéria, in central Ceará State, northeastern Brazil. Mineralization has occurred in different stages and involves quartz leaching (episyenitization), brecciation and microcrystalline phase formation of concretionary apatite. The last constitutes the main mineral of Itatiaia uranium ore, namely collophane. Collophanite ore occurs in massive bodies, lenses, breccia zones, veins or episyenite in marble layers, calc-silicate rocks and gneisses of the Itataia Group.There are two accepted theories on the origin of the earliest mineralization phase of Itataia ore: syngenetic (primary) – where the ore is derived from a continental source and then deposited in marine and coastal environments; and epigenetic (secondary) – whereby the fluids are of magmatic, metamorphic and meteoric origin. The characterization of pre- or post-deformational mineralization is controversial, since the features of the ore are interpreted as deformation.This investigation conducted isotopic studies and chemical analyses of minerals in marbles and calc-silicate rocks of the Alcantil and Barrigas Formations (Itataia Group), as well as petrographic and structural studies. Analysis of the thin sections shows at least three phosphate mineral phases associated with uranium mineralizaton: (1) A prismatic fluorapatite phase associated with chess-board albite, arfvedsonite and ferro-eckermannite; (2) a second fluorapatite phase with fibrous radial or colloform habits that replaces calcium carbonate in marble, especially along fractures, with minerals such as quartz, chlorite and zeolite also identified in calc-silicate rocks; and (3) an younger phosphate phase of botryoidal apatite (fluorapatite and hydroxyapatite) related with clay minerals and probably others calcium and aluminum phosphates. Detailed isotopic analysis carried out perpendicularly to the mineralized levels and veins in the marble revealed significant variation in isotopic ratios. Mineralized zones exhibit a decrease in δ¹³C and δ¹⁸O isotope values and a higher ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio toward the center of the vein. In conjunction with petrographic studies, these changes contesting the hypothesis of a sedimentary origin for uranium and suggest a radiogenic Sr input by alkaline to peralkaline fluids from fertile granites of the end of Brasiliano/Pan-African orogeny, located outside the deposit. The origin of the phosphorous is associated with phosphorite deposits in the same depositional environment of the neoproterozoic supracrustal quartz-pelite-carbonate sediments of the Itataia Group.Considering the studies conducted here and available geological data, three main mineralizing events can be identified in Itataia: (1) an initial high temperature event connected with a sodium metasomatism-related uranium episode, taking place in Borborema Province and its African counterpart; (2) a second lower temperature stage, consisting of a multiphase cataclastic/hydrothermal event limited to fault and paleokarst zones; and (3) a third and final event, developed in frankly oxidizing conditions. The last two involving mixing of hydrothermal and meteoric fluids.