Extinction and the fossil record

The author examines evidence of mass extinctions in the fossil record and searches for reasons for such large extinctions. Five major mass extinctions eliminated at least 40 percent of animal genera in the oceans and from 65 to 95 percent of ocean species. Questions include the occurrence of gradual or catastrophic extinctions, causes, environment, the capacity of a perturbation to cause extinctions each time it happens, and the possibility and identification of complex events leading to a mass extinction.     

鄂尔多斯盆地南缘上二叠统——中下三叠统地球化学特征及其古气候、古环境指示意义

为探索陆相湖泊环境记录中二叠纪—三叠纪之交古气候演化的信息,以鄂尔多斯盆地南缘陕西铜川石川河剖面上二叠统石千峰组(P3s)和三叠系的刘家沟组(T1l)、和尚沟组(T1h)、纸坊组(T2z)为研究对象,对界面上下地层开展了系统的矿物学、岩石学和地球化学研究。通过主量和微量元素、碳氧同位素以及TOC测试对古盐度、古氧化还原环境和古气候演化规律进行分析。测试结果显示在二叠系—三叠系(P/T)界线附近主、微量元素和碳、氧同位素发生较明显的变化,气候环境代用化学指标的波动指示了从晚二叠世至早中三叠世鄂尔多斯盆地的古气候、古环境的变化。研究结果表明上二叠统石千峰组形成于河流-三角洲沉积环境,氧化程度相对低,古气候相对温暖湿润;下三叠统刘家沟组与和尚沟组的紫红色砂泥岩代表水体较浅的河流-三角洲相,强氧化环境,气候干旱炎热;而到中三叠统纸坊组沉积期,湖平面上升,元素的迁移作用加强,氧化程度变弱,气温降低,气候转为半干旱半湿润气候。碳同位素分析结果显示,鄂尔多斯盆地陆相P/T界线上δ^13CPDB存在显著负偏,与全球范围内的海相P/T界线具有一致性,说明在华北地台陆相P/T界线上同样存在气候突变和生物灭绝等重大地质事件的沉积记录,与海相地层可对比。     

Mass Extinction——A Fundamental Indicator for Major Natural Divisions of Geological History

In the Phanerozoic, there are three major geological boundaries: Precambrian/Cambrian.Permian/Triassic and Cretaceous/Tertiary. Studies of these boundaries in China and over the world stronglysuggest that they have the following similar features: mass extinctions of many taxa, positive anomalies ofplatinum-group metals, and abrupt changes of stable isotopes (δ~(13)C). It is quite probable that these were theconsequences of some rare catastrophic events of extraterrestrial origin. Hence, the three above-mentionedmass extinction events may be regarded as key indicators for the division of the geological history of thePhanerozoic.     

Establishing the link between Permian volcanism and biodiversity changes: Insights from geochemical proxies

Current understanding of biodiversity changes in the Permian is presented, especially the consensus and disagreement on the tempo, duration, and pattern of end-Guadalupian and end-Permian mass extinctions. The end-Guadalupian mass extinction (EGME; i.e., pre-Lopingian crisis) is not as severe as previously thought. Moreover, the turnovers of major fossil groups occurred at different temporal levels, therefore the total duration of the end-Guadalupian mass extinction is relatively extended. By comparison, fossil records constrained with high-precision geochronology indicate that the end-Permian mass extinction (EPME) was a single-pulse event and happened geologically instantaneous. Variation of geochemical proxies preserved in the sedimentary records is important evidence in examining potential links between volcanisms and biodiversity changes. Some conventional and non-traditional geochemical proxy records in the Permian show abrupt changes across the Permian-Triassic boundary, reflecting climate change, ocean acidification and anoxia, carbon cycle perturbation, gaseous metal loading, and enhanced continental weathering. These, together with the stratigraphic coincidence between volcanic ashes and the end-Permian mass extinction horizon, point to large-scale volcanism as a potential trigger mechanism.To further define the nature of volcanism which was responsible for global change in biodiversity, main characteristics of four Permian large igneous provinces (LIPs; i.e., Tarim, Panjal, Emeishan, and Siberian) are compared, in terms of timing and tempo, spatial distribution and volume, and magma-wall rock interactions. The comparison indicates that volcanic fluxes (i.e., eruption rates) and gas productions are the key features distinguishing the Siberian Traps from other LIPs, which also are the primary factors in determining the LIP’s potential of affecting Earth’s surface system. We find that the Siberian Traps volcanism, especially the switch from dominantly extrusive eruptions to widespread sill intrusions, has the strongest potential for destructive impacts, and most likely is the ultimate trigger for profound environmental and biological changes in the latest Permian-earliest Triassic. The role of Palaeotethys subduction-related arc magmatism cannot be fully ruled out, given its temporal coincidence with the end-Permian mass extinction. As for the Emeishan LIP, medium volcanic flux and gas emission probably limited its killing potential, as evident from weak changes in geochemical proxies and biodiversity. Because of its long-lasting but episodic nature, the Early Permian magmatism (e.g., Tarim, and Panjal) may have played a positive role in affecting the contemporaneous environment, as implicated by coeval progressive climate warming, termination of the Late Palaeozoic Ice Age (LPIA), and flourishing of ecosystems.     

广西来宾二叠系瓜德鲁普统-乐平统界线蓬莱滩剖面沉积微相演变及其对生物灭绝事件的响应

在中二叠世(瓜德鲁普世)末期发生了一次全球范围的生物灭绝事件,大约有34%的海洋无脊椎动物消失,同时发生了全球规模的海退事件。该事件在中国反应为东吴运动,致使华南大部分地区瓜德鲁普统—乐平统之交产生不整合。广西来宾地区位于扬子地台南缘,在中—晚二叠世时期处于滇黔桂盆地的东部。由于其独特的古地理位置,来宾地区发育了连续的中—晚二叠世海相沉积,是研究此次生物大灭绝和环境演变的绝佳位置。本文对广西来宾蓬莱滩瓜德鲁普统—乐平统(G—L)界线剖面沉积微相和生物化石进行了综合研究。研究表明,该剖面1～7层共发育5种主要的沉积微相组合,既礁基相组合、礁核相组合、覆礁相组合、礁滩相组合和深水斜坡相组合,生物礁发育于一个海退序列中。生物碎屑的丰度和类型在7a层突然急剧降低,与该剖面碳同位素的负偏和汞异常的出现一致,但实际上在这一层位只有个别牙形石和菊石消失,生物屑丰度的剧变并不能代表灭绝线,而是对海平面剧变的沉积响应。     

Landscape ecological shift at the Permian‐Triassic boundary in Antarctica

Palaeosols across the Permian‐Triassic boundary in Antarctica provide evidence of a marked change in ecosystems at this greatest of all extinctions in the history of life on Earth. The boundary can now be recognised from evidence of carbon isotopic (δ¹³C) stratigraphy, reptiles of the earliest Triassic Lystrosaurus zone, and Late Permian glossopterid fructifications and pollen. The boundary is a profound change in palaeosols, with very different suites of pedotypes in Permian compared with Triassic sequences. Permian palaeosols include coals, rooted lithic sandstones and rooted tuffaceous silt‐stones. Triassic palaeosols in contrast are largely rooted, green‐red‐mottled claystones. These palaeosols represent a shift from Late Permian cold temperate broadleaf deciduous swamp woodlands to Early Triassic cool temperate conifer forests. Indications of more intense weathering during the earliest Triassic confirm a significantly warmer palaeoclimate in the earliest Triassic than in the latest Permian. Palaeoclimate remained humid with low evapotranspiration in both Permian and Triassic, but Triassic ecosystems were more oligotrophic, humus‐poor and more oxidised than Permian ones. Yet both Permian and Triassic palaeosols were unpodzolised, unlike soils today under such climates and vegetation. Palaeosols in Antarctica confirm several peculiarities of the earliest Triassic: (i) a global coal gap; (ii) a high‐latitude greenhouse; and (iii) a Gondwanan tuff gap. Palaeosols support evidence from fossil plants and reptiles and from carbon isotopic studies for a shift toward oligotrophic, low‐productivity ecosystems, dominated by opportunistic and stress‐tolerant organisms in the earliest Triassic. Life was difficult on land as well as in the sea following the terminal Permian mass extinction.     

湖北秭归吴家坪组—长兴组界线氧化还原条件及其意义

二叠纪发生了两次重大生物灭绝事件，一次是位于吴家坪初期即瓜德鲁普世末生物灭绝事件，另一次是位于长兴末期即晚二叠世末生物灭绝事件。在这两次生物灭绝事件之间的大约八百万年时间里，其环境变化研究相对较少，古海洋的氧化还原条件变化目前尚未清楚。通过分析湖北秭归县杨林剖面的黄铁矿形态来探讨吴家坪组-长兴组界线氧化还原条件及其意义。研究结果表明:吴家坪组与长兴组石灰岩沉积时期的古海水主要是贫氧至氧化环境。在吴家坪组上部至长兴组下部地层沉积时期古水体出现间歇性硫化现象。该硫化缺氧事件不仅出现在秭归地区，还广泛分布于鄂西盆地、扬子台地南缘南盘江盆地、阿拉伯地台以及东格陵兰盆地地区。这说明吴家坪-长兴组界线沉积时期的间歇性硫化缺氧事件有可能是一个全球性事件。该事件可能与二叠末事件有一定的关联。     

中国晚泥盆世至早三叠世楔叶类植物多样性研究*

化石类群的分类单元多样性和形态多样性变化是生物宏演化的2个基本方面,而以往的研究对于后者的关注较少。晚古生代的楔叶类植物易于识别,化石记录丰富,但针对这一类群多样性演化的研究还较为缺乏。基于华北板块、华南板块晚泥盆世至早三叠世楔叶类植物属、种以及叶片形态编码数据库,对楔叶类植物宏演化历程进行详细研究。中国(华北板块和华南板块)楔叶类植物的属、种丰富度在晚古生代呈现出不稳定的持续增长,表现为晚泥盆世的初始兴盛、早石炭世杜内期至早二叠世萨克马尔期的缓慢上升、早二叠世萨克马尔期至晚二叠世吴家坪期的快速上升;晚二叠世长兴期,总体的属种多样性骤减;每百万年属种多样性在二叠纪—三叠纪之交亦有明显降低。华南板块楔叶类植物的属种多样性总体上小于华北板块,达到峰值的时间为卡匹敦期—吴家坪期,而华北楔叶类植物的属级多样性在空谷期—沃德期达到峰值。中国楔叶类植物叶片的形态多样性的剧烈变化与属种丰富度并不同步,表现为法门期至韦宪期较小,在宾夕法尼亚亚纪达到峰值,随后稍微下降并在二叠纪的大部分时段保持平稳。在晚古生代的叶片形态演化过程中,楔叶类植物的叶面积由小变大、叶片由深裂至不裂、叶尖形状由分裂变为圆形或钝圆、叶轮中的叶从大小相等到大小不等并出现叶镶嵌,这可能与当时植物群落中林下层光照强度的变化有关。     

Contrasting geochemical signatures on land from the Middle and Late Permian extinction events

The end of the Palaeozoic is marked by two mass‐extinction events during the Middle Permian (Capitanian) and the Late Permian (Changhsingian). Given similarities between the two events in geochemical signatures, such as large magnitude negative δ¹³C anomalies, sedimentological signatures such as claystone breccias, and the approximate contemporaneous emplacement of large igneous provinces, many authors have sought a common causal mechanism. Here, a new high‐resolution continental record of the Capitanian event from Portal Mountain, Antarctica, is compared with previously published Changhsingian records of geochemical signatures of weathering intensity and palaeoclimatic change. Geochemical means of discriminating sedimentary provenance (Ti/Al, U/Th and La/Ce ratios) all indicate a common provenance for the Portal Mountain sediments and associated palaeosols, so changes spanning the Capitanian extinction represent changes in weathering intensity rather than sediment source. Proxies for weathering intensity chemical index of alteration, ?W and rare earth element accumulation all decline across the Capitanian extinction event at Portal Mountain, which is in contrast to the increased weathering recorded globally at the Late Permian extinction. Furthermore, palaeoclimatic proxies are consistent with unchanging or cooler climatic conditions throughout the Capitanian event, which contrasts with Changhsingian records that all indicate a significant syn‐extinction and post‐extinction series of greenhouse warming events. Although both the Capitanian and Changhsingian event records indicate significant redox shifts, palaeosol geochemistry of the Changhsingian event indicates more reducing conditions, whereas the new Capitanian record of reduced trace metal abundances (Cr, Cu, Ni and Ce) indicates more oxidizing conditions. Taken together, the differences in weathering intensity, redox and the lack of evidence for significant climatic change in the new record suggest that the Capitanian mass extinction was not triggered by dyke injection of coal‐beds, as in the Changhsingian extinction, and may instead have been triggered directly by the Emeishan large igneous province or by the interaction of Emeishan basalts with platform carbonates.     

四川华蓥山二叠纪与三叠纪之交沉积特征及动物群变化

晚二叠世晚期,华蓥山地区位于川东、鄂西碳酸盐岩台地上.二叠—三叠系接触关系是华南常见类型之一.生物群集绝灭不是正发生在界线上,而是在界线之下数十厘米处,δ（?）C最大负值和δ（?）O最大变化都发生在这个层位上,我们称它为“重要的生物绝灭（消失）线”.二叠—三叠纪之交生物大绝灭的原因,我们认为主要是环境的变化和生物的不适应性.工作区未发现地外星体撞击事件的记录.     

Abrupt shifts in the late Cenozoic environment of north-western China recorded in loess–palaeosol–red clay sequences

Aeolian deposits can provide a sensitive record of climatic change. Two abrupt changes in grain size and accumulation rate have been identified at c . 2.4–2.6 Ma and 1.1–1.2 Ma in the loess–palaeosol–red clay sequences from the Loess Plateau of China. These changes are apparent in two major stepwise increases in grain size and accumulation rate following two abrupt prominent change events of grain size, implying a two-step reorganization that was probably connected with two abrupt environmental change events. The correlation among different sections suggests that regional rather than local environmental processes are responsible for these changes. These changes likely record abrupt fluctuations in winter monsoon and the provenance of sediments associated with renewed Plio-Pleistocene uplift of the Tibetan plateau, and its role on climate and detrital sediment yield.     

重大地质突变期生物与环境事件的分子化石记录

随着现代分析测试技术的发展,地质类脂物分子在地球环境和生命过程领域得到了快速的应用。总结了志留纪/奥陶纪、晚泥盆世弗拉期/法门期、三叠纪/二叠纪、侏罗纪/三叠纪、古近纪/白垩纪5次生物集群灭绝期地质类脂物分子记录的生物和环境事件。重点讨论了地质类脂物记录的绿硫细菌和水体透光带富硫化氢事件、甲烷菌与海底天然气水合物释放以及这些事件与生物危机的可能关系。提出了当前的工作应从生物危机向生态危机深入,既能反映生物事件与环境事件的关系,又能体现地质记录和地质过程的结合,这其中,地微生物生态系和陆地生态系工作亟待加强。     

全球古-中生代之交牙形石研究进展

古-中生代之交发生了许多重要的地质事件,包括“Pangea”大陆的解体、大火成岩省的喷发、晚古生代大冰期的消逝、极端高温事件、两次生物大灭绝以及迟缓的生物复苏等.牙形石作为该时期主要的标准化石,是进行地层对比以及生物与环境协同演化研究的重要依据.近些年,此阶段的牙形石相关研究取得了许多重要的进展,这些新的材料和技术手段上的突破,为人们进行高精度的地层对比、定量重建该时期地球的生物及环境演变起到了关键作用.本文系统地对该时期全球牙形石的研究,包括牙形石的生物学、地层学以及地球化学研究等进行了总结,也提出了部分亟待解决的问题.未来,随着更多技术手段的开发以及更多基础材料的发现,将加强研究人员对该时期牙形石演化的理解,必然也会在研究这段地质历史转折与突变期的古海洋、古环境、古生物过程中发挥更大的作用.      

Tracking paleoecological and isotopic changes through the K-Pg boundary from marine ostracodes: The Poty quarry section,northeastern Brazil

Ostracode assemblages of the Poty quarry, Pernambuco-Paraíba Basin, northeastern Brazil, record an abrupt faunal change near the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary. Paleoecological and stable isotope analyses of ostracode carapaces were used to interpret the paleoenvironmental changes that took place from the Late Maastrichtian to the Early Danian. Ostracode distribution demonstrates substantial changes at and around the boundary with the last occurrences of most species and appearance of new ones. Stable isotope analyses carried out for four ostracode species distributed along the entire succession exhibit oscillations in the isotopic composition before the K-Pg boundary, thus suggesting that environmental changes may have begun slightly prior the boundary event itself. These changes may have triggered the extinctions that culminated at the K-Pg boundary, marked by positive δ¹⁸O and negative δ¹³C excursions. The K-Pg boundary is marked by cooling of bottom seawaters and a decrease in productivity, as well as the beginning of an extensive marine regression.     

川北广元须家河组一段沉积相与沉积环境演化分析

四川盆地北部三叠系—侏罗纪发育,出露良好,是三叠纪—侏罗纪转换时期古气候与古环境变化的良好物质记录.其中,晚三叠世诺利期是四川盆地海陆转换的重要过渡期,尤其是对陆地生态系统的影响更加显著.以川北广元剖面为研究对象,对晚三叠世诺利期末须家河组须一段进行沉积相及沉积环境演化的分析,结果表明:研究剖面发育潟湖沼泽—三角洲平原...     

Sea-level changes,facies changes and the late Precambrian—Early cambrian evolutionary explosion

An explosive increase in the fossil record coincided with a major rise in sea level during latest Precambrian—early Cambrian times. The artefactual and real effects of an onshore—offshore environmental gradient upon taxonomic diversity are considered, with particular reference to 14 fossiliferous sections from around the world. Within-taxon and within-habitat evolution through the early Cambrian are also discussed. The evidence suggests that evolution was a diversity-dependent (i.e. kinetic) growth process, made possible by the colonisation and gradual filling of habitats that were growing both in variety and area. Archaeocyatha diversified rapidly at first but may have suffered later decline and extinction because facies changes in late early Cambrian times reduced their area of habitat.     

Correlation of the largest craters,stratigraphic impact signatures,and extinction events over the past 250 Myr

The six largest known impact craters of the last 250 Myr(≥70 km in diameter),which are capable of causing significant environmental damage,coincide with four times of recognized extinction events at 36(with 2 craters),66,and 145 Myr ago,and possibly with two provisional extinction events at 168 and215 Myr ago.These impact cratering events are accompanied by layers in the geologic record interpreted as impact ejecta.Chance occurrences of impacts and extinctions can be rejected at confidence levels of99.96%(for 4 impact/extinctions)to 99.99%(for 6 impact/extinctions).These results argue that several extinction events over the last 250 Myr may be related to the effects of large-body impacts.     

Exploring aberrant bivalve shell ultrastructure and geochemistry as proxies for past sea water acidification

Throughout much of Earth's history, marine carbonates have represented one of the most important geological archives of environmental change. Several pivotal events during the Phanerozoic, such as mass extinctions or hyperthermal events have recently been associated with ocean acidification. Nevertheless, well‐defined geological proxies for past ocean acidification events are, at best, scarce. Here, experimental work explores the response of bivalve shell ultrastructure and isotope geochemistry (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O and δ²⁶Mg) to stressful environments, in particular to sea water acidification. In this study, the common blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, was cultured (from early juvenile stages to one year of age) at four pH regimes (pH_NBS 7·2 to pH 8·0). Shell growth rate and ultrastructure of mainly the calcitic portion of the shells were compared between experimental treatments. Specimens exposed to low‐pH environments show patches of disordered calcitic fibre orientation in otherwise well‐structured shells. Furthermore, the electron backscattered diffraction analyses reveal that, under acidified conditions, the c‐axis of the calcite prisms exhibits a bimodal or multi‐modal distribution pattern. Similar shell disorder patterns have been reported from mytilids kept under naturally acidified sea water conditions. In contrast, this study found no evidence that different pH regimes affect shell carbon, oxygen or magnesium isotope ratios. Based on these observations, it is proposed that: (i) stressful environments, in this case low sea water pH, predictably affect bivalve biomineralization patterns; and (ii) these findings bear potential as a novel (petrographic) proxy for ancient sea water acidification. An assessment of the applicability of these data to well‐preserved fossil shell material from selected time intervals requires additional work.     

The fungal and acritarch events as time markers for the latest Permian mass extinction:An update

The latest Permian extinction(252 Myr ago)was the most severe in the geologic record.On land,widespread Late Permian gymnosperm/seed-fern dominated forests appear to have suffered rapid and almost complete destruction,as evidenced by increased soil erosion and changes in fluvial style in deforested areas,signs of wildfires,replacement of trees by lower plants,and almost complete loss of peat-forming and fire-susceptible vegetation.Permian-Triassic boundary strata at many sites show two widespread palynological events in the wake of the forest destruction:The fungal event,evidenced by a thin zone with95%fungal cells(Reduviasporonites)and woody debris,found in terrestrial and marine sediments,and the acritarch event,marked by the sudden flood of unusual phytoplankton in the marine realm.These two events represent the global temporary explosive spread of stress-tolerant and opportunistic organisms on land and in the sea just after the latest Permian disaster.They represent unique events,and thus they can provide a time marker in correlating latest Permian marine and terrestrial sequences.     

Behavior of lophophorates during the end-Permian mass extinction and recovery

The end-Permian mass extinction devastated most marine communities and the recovery was a protracted event lasting several million years into the Early Triassic. Environmental and biological processes undoubtedly controlled patterns of recovery for marine invertebrates in the aftermath of the extinction, but are often difficult to single-out. The global diversity and distribution of marine lophophorates during the aftermath of the end-Permian mass extinction indicates that stenolaemate bryozoans, rhynchonelliform brachiopods, and lingulid brachiopods displayed distinct recovery patterns.Bryozoans were the most susceptible of the lophophorates, experiencing relatively high rates of extinction at the end of the Permian, and becoming restricted to the Boreal region during the Early Triassic. The recovery of bryozoans was also delayed until the Late Triassic and characterized by very low diversity and abundance. Following the final disappearance of Permian rhynchonelliform brachiopod survivors, Early Triassic rhynchonelliform brachiopod abundance remained suppressed despite a successful re-diversification and a global distribution, suggesting a decoupling between global taxonomic and ecological processes likely driven by lingering environmental stress.In contrast with bryozoans and rhynchonelliforms, lingulid brachiopods rebounded rapidly, colonizing shallow marine settings left vacant by the extinction. Lingulid dominance, characterized by low diversity but high numerical abundance, was short-lived and they were once again displaced back into marginal settings as environmental stress changed through the marine recovery. The presence in lingulid brachiopods of the respiratory pigment hemerythrin, known to increase the efficacy of oxygen storage and transport, when coupled with other morphological and physiological adaptations, may have given lingulids a survival advantage in environmentally stressed Early Triassic settings.