Investigation of spheroidal weathering and twinning

What determines the geometry of spheroidal weathering patterns? Spheroidal weathering rings appear to arise from the leaching of fresh rock, rather than from reprecipitation of dissolved minerals diffusing out of weathered rock. In previous work the authors developed a mathematical model to explain the geometry of spheroidal weathering structures, and showed how some of the features of weathering patterns, otherwise difficult to explain, were natural consequences of the model. In describing the geometrical aspect of these shapes, we hope to understand how natural forces acted upon the unweathered rock and why and under what conditions spheroidal weathering structures were formed. In this paper we review the main features of our model and examine and discuss twinning of spheroidal weathering structures, concluding that the structures were formed during a distinct period in the past. Twinning is an apparent anomaly in that its natural occurrence, as part of the weathering process, cannot be explained by our model without additional ad hoc assumptions. Careful examination of twins reveals an explanation which does not require revision of the model.     

发育完整的灰岩风化壳及其矿物学和地球化学特征

对于碳酸盐岩土覆土壤成因、尽管碳酸盐岩风化残积成土说被多数学者认同,但由于碳酸盐岩中酸不溶物含量极低,在风化成土过程中会伴随着巨大的体积缩小变化,原岩结构和半风化带无法保留,从而缺失了探索上覆土壤物质来源的重要中间环节,使得这种观点缺乏野外宏观证据的支持。最近,我们在贵州、湖南等地发现了数个以泥质灰岩和泥质白云岩为基岩的碳酸盐岩风化壳剖面,尚保留有较好的原岩结构,具有明显的风化壳分带和过渡现象。这些风化壳剖面的发现为深入研究碳酸盐岩风化成土过程提供了良好的研究场所。本文选取了较为典型的吉首泥灰岩风化壳剖面,从矿物学地球化学的角度来探讨碳酸盐岩风化壳的形成过程和发育特征,结果表明该风化壳既遵循非碳酸盐岩（主要是结晶岩类）风化壳的发育特征,也具有自己独特的地球化学演化规律。风化壳总体特点受碳酸盐中的酸不溶物矿物组合及化学成分的影响甚至控制,风化非碳酸盐风壳相似的发育特征。吉首泥灰岩风化壳剖面的发育特征和作者早先提出 的碳酸盐岩风化成土的两阶段模式是一致的,即以碳酸盐矿物大量淋失、酸不溶物逐渐堆积或残积为特征的早期阶段和残积物进一步风化成土的阶段,后一阶段的演化类似非碳酸盐岩类的风化过程。     

An elastoplastic strainhardening model for soil allowing for hydraulic bonding–debonding effects

The paper presents a strainhardening constitutive model for unsaturated soil behaviour based on energy conjugated stress variables in the framework of superposed continua. The proposed constitutive law deals with hydro‐mechanical coupling phenomena. The main purpose is to develop within a consistent framework a model that can deal with possible mechanical instabilities occurring in partially saturated materials. The loss of capillary effects during wetting processes can, in fact, play a central role in unstable processes. Therefore, it will be shown that the bonding effects due to surface tensions can be described in a mathematical framework similar to that employed for bonded geomaterials to model weathering or diagenesis effects, either mechanically or chemically induced. The results of several simulations of common laboratory tests on partially saturated soil specimens are shown. The calculated behaviour appears to be in good qualitative agreement with that observed in the laboratory. In particular it is shown that volumetric collapse phenomena due to hydraulic debonding effects can be successfully described by the model. Finally, it will be highlighted the ability of the model to naturally capture the transition to a fully saturated condition and to deal with possible mechanical instabilities in the unsaturated regime. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reaction induced fracturing during replacement processes

Replacement processes are common transformation mechanisms in minerals and rocks at a variety of conditions and scales. The underlying mechanisms are, in general, poorly understood, but both mechanical and chemical processes are thought to be important. Replacement of leucite (KAlSi₂O₆) by analcime (NaAlSi₂O₆ ^.H₂O) is common in silica-poor igneous rocks. A 10% increase in volume is associated with the replacement process, and this generates stresses that eventually cause fracturing of the reacting leucite. Experimentally reacted leucite samples display characteristic fracturing patterns that include both spalling of concentric ‘onion-skin’-like layers near the reacting interface and the formation of cross-cutting, often hierarchically arranged, sets of fractures that divide the remaining leucite into progressively smaller domains. These structures may explain the ‘patchy’ alteration patterns observed in natural leucite samples and similar, so-called, mesh-textures associated with the serpentinization of olivine grains during hydration of mafic or ultramafic rocks. They are also strikingly similar to larger scale patterns formed during spheroidal weathering processes. A simple discrete element model illustrates the mechanics that control the formation of such systems, and shows how these replacement processes may be accelerated due to the generation of new reactive surface area by hierarchical fracturing processes.     

Geochemistry of large river suspended sediments: silicate weathering or recycling tracer?

This study focuses on the major and trace element composition of suspended sediments transported by the world’s largest rivers. Its main purpose is to answer the following question: is the degree of weathering of modern river-borne particles consistent with the estimated river dissolved loads derived from silicate weathering?In agreement with the well known mobility of elements during weathering of continental rocks, we confirm that river sediments are systematically depleted in Na, K, Ba with respect to the Upper Continental Crust. For each of these mobile elements, a systematics of weathering indexes of river-borne solids is attempted. A global consistency is found between all these indexes. Important variations in weathering intensities exist. A clear dependence of weathering intensities with climate is observed for the rivers draining mostly lowlands. However, no global correlation exists between weathering intensities and climatic or relief parameters because the trend observed for lowlands is obscured by rivers draining orogenic zones. An inverse correlation between weathering intensities and suspended sediment concentrations is observed showing that the regions having the highest rates of physical denudation produce the least weathered sediments. Finally, chemical and physical weathering are compared through the use of a simple steady state model. We show that the weathering intensities of large river suspended sediments can only be reconciled with the (silicate-derived) dissolved load of rivers, by admitting that most of the continental rocks submitted to weathering in large river basins have already suffered previous weathering cycles. A simple graphical method is proposed for calculating the proportion of sedimentary recycling in large river basins. Finally, even if orogenic zones produce weakly weathered sediments, we emphasize the fact that silicate chemical weathering rates (and hence CO₂ consumption rates by silicate weathering) are greatly enhanced in mountains simply because the sediment yields in orogenic drainage basins are higher. Hence, the parameters that control chemical weathering rates would be those that control physical denudation rates.     

Determining mineral weathering rates based on solid and solute weathering gradients and velocities: application to biotite weathering in saprolites

Chemical weathering gradients are defined by the changes in the measured elemental concentrations in solids and pore waters with depth in soils and regoliths. An increase in the mineral weathering rate increases the change in these concentrations with depth while increases in the weathering velocity decrease the change. The solid-state weathering velocity is the rate at which the weathering front propagates through the regolith and the solute weathering velocity is equivalent to the rate of pore water infiltration. These relationships provide a unifying approach to calculating both solid and solute weathering rates from the respective ratios of the weathering velocities and gradients. Contemporary weathering rates based on solute residence times can be directly compared to long-term past weathering based on changes in regolith composition. Both rates incorporate identical parameters describing mineral abundance, stoichiometry, and surface area.

Weathering gradients were used to calculate biotite weathering rates in saprolitic regoliths in the Piedmont of Northern Georgia, USA and in Luquillo Mountains of Puerto Rico. Solid-state weathering gradients for Mg and K at Panola produced reaction rates of 3 to 6×10⁻¹⁷ mol m⁻² s⁻¹ for biotite. Faster weathering rates of 1.8 to 3.6×10⁻¹⁶ mol m⁻² s⁻¹ are calculated based on Mg and K pore water gradients in the Rio Icacos regolith. The relative rates are in agreement with a warmer and wetter tropical climate in Puerto Rico. Both natural rates are three to six orders of magnitude slower than reported experimental rates of biotite weathering.     

Weathering processes and pickeringite formation in a sulfidic schist: A consideration in acid precipitation neutralization studies

Extremely low abrasion pH values (2.8–3.3) characterize the weathering products of the Partridge Formation, a Middle-Ordovician metamorphosed, black, sulfidic shale. The local occurrence is observed of two sulfates that are rare in the Northeast: pickeringite and jarosite. X-ray diffraction studies of the weathering residues and the sulfate efflorescences have also identified dioctahedral and trioctahedral illite, kaolinite, vermiculite, and an 11–12 Å phase, thought to be a type of randomly-interstratified biotite-vermiculite. From the mineralogical studies, qualitative weathering processes for the schist are formulated. A probable mechanism for the intense chemical weathering of the schist appears to be oxidation of iron sulfides to form iron oxide-hydroxides, sulfates, and sulfuric acid. This natural weathering process is proposed as an analog to anthropogenic low pH rock weathering resulting from acid precipitation. In the Northeast,natural weathering rates, may, in places, significantly affect the water chemistry and mineralogy used to quantify total (natural plus anthropogenic) weathering and leaching rates.     

Multispecies Mortality Patterns of Commercial Bivalves in Relation to Estuarine Salinity Fluctuation

Fluctuations in salinity may cause huge economic losses in estuaries with exploited commercial bivalves owing to their effect on mortality of these species. However, the same decrease in salinity does not affect all species in the same way, so it is interesting to study the effect of salinity from a multispecies standpoint. In the management of exploited bivalve beds, it is important to know the tolerance thresholds of the species, not only in cases of extremely low salinities but also over prolonged periods when salinities are low but not extreme. An analysis of mortality episodes of commercial bivalves in the Ulla River estuary (Galicia, NW Spain) from 1977 to 2009 revealed two mortality patterns related to how greatly the different species were affected. A mathematical model was designed to estimate salinity in the estuary based on weather conditions and tidal amplitude. By applying this model, it was possible to deduce the intensity and duration of the salinity decrease in the days prior to each mortality episode with the goal of relating these factors to mortality patterns. The two parameters found to be sufficient to explain the mortality observed were the minimum salinity at high tide and the number of consecutive days below a specific salinity threshold.     

Salt efflorescences and Saline lakes; a distributional analysis

Salt lakes and salt efflorescences are a common phenomenon of many arid zones. Rocks weather rapidly in the presence of saline materials, and the rate of such weathering may be controlled by the mineralogy of the salts concerned. The distribution of the main salt types is presented for the polar deserts of Antarctica and the Arctic, and for the warmer deserts of Australia, North America, South America, Africa and Asia. There is great variety in the types of salts encountered and marked differences between different regions, with, for example, Australia being dominated by sodium chloride (halite) and southern Canada by the sulphates of magnesium and sodium. The possible causes of such variability and its pattern are analysed in terms of the nature of inputs into drainage basins and the various changes that take place within basins. Finally, it is apparent that in those situations when weathering has been observed as an active process there are a great many different salts involved.     

头寨滑坡玄武岩腐岩的岩石化学和矿物学特征

利用化学全分析、薄片鉴定及扫描电镜等测试、观察手段,分析了头寨滑坡发生的岩体玄武岩及其腐岩玄武岩腐岩的岩石化学和矿物学特征。化学全分析结果表明新鲜玄武岩与核心石在除Fe外,其它组分无明显的改变;核心石在转变为腐岩过程中Si、Ca、Na、Mg等元素逐渐流失,Fe、Al等逐渐富集,同时烧失量LOI和化学蚀变指数CIA显著增加,硅铝比逐渐减少。薄片鉴定表明主要矿物化学风化作用顺序为玻璃质、辉石、斜长石,与造岩矿物风化稳定性序列一致,腐岩中主要的次生矿物为蒙皂石及绿泥石。在扫描电镜下观察到风化前锋形态曲折,风化前锋附近矿物呈现物理裂痕,沿着解理面更易出现,风化前锋两侧的岩石矿物形态差异显著。岩体的化学-物理耦合风化作用不仅表现在宏观尺度上,而且在细观-微观的尺度上更为明显。铁元素的价态变化存在于玄武岩腐岩形成的整个过程之中并导致岩石体积增大,从而产生物理裂纹。     

REE distribution in some layered migmatites: constraints on their petrogenesis

The REE distributions in mesosomes, neosomes, leucosomes and melanosomes of four layered migmatites have been investigated. In one example (Arvika migmatites) the REE patterns in adjacent paragneisses, the presumed parent rock of the migmatites, were also determined. REE patterns of neosomes and mesosomes of Arvika migmatites are similar to the finegrained layers and coarse-grained layers, respectively, observed in the adjacent paragneiss. This is in agreement with the layer-by-layer paragneiss-migmatite transformation model.

The REE patterns of mesosomes and neosomes indicate that these lithologies may have been closed systems (for REE) during the formation of the migmatites. No indication of metasomatic reactions, melt segregation or injection could be detected. Within the neosomes, leucosomes are depleted and melanosomes enriched in REE contents. This is interpreted to be due to separation and concentration of accessory minerals (monazite, epidote, allanite, zircon, sphene, apatite, garnet) into the melanosomes. The behaviour of accessory minerals during migmatite formation is closely allied to that of biotite, which is also concentrated in the melanosomes.     

Analysis of fracture propagation in a rock mass surrounding a tunnel under high internal pressure by the element-free Galerkin method

Fractures developed around high pressurized gas or air storage tunnels can progressively extend to the ground surface, eventually leading to an uplift failure. A tool reasonably reproducing the failure patterns is necessary for stability assessment. In this study, a numerical method based on the element-free Galerkin (EFG) method with a cohesive crack model is developed to simulate fracture propagation patterns in the rock mass around a tunnel under high internal pressure. A series of physical model tests was also conducted to validate the reliability of the developed method. A qualitative agreement between physical model tests and numerical results can be obtained. The in situ stress ratio, k, has a strong influence on both the position of crack initiation and the propagation direction. The numerical analyses were extended to full-scale problems. Numerical tests were performed to investigate the prime influencing factors on the failure patterns of a high pressurized gas circular tunnel with varying parameters. The results suggest that initial in situ stress conditions with a high k (larger than 1) is favorable for construction of pressurized gas or air storage tunnels.     

Exploring links between vadose zone hydrology and chemical weathering in the Boulder Creek critical zone observatory

Understanding the relationship between subsurface flow paths on hillslopes and chemical weathering of bedrock is fundamental to understanding the timing and mechanisms that weather bedrock to saprolite. The link between chemical weathering of bedrock and contact time with reactive water along flow paths motivates this study. Water drives the chemical alteration of rock into saprolite, yet connected porosity generally declines with depth into the weathered profile. Saprolite formation, therefore, reflects coupled weathering and permeability development over time. This study uses numerical modeling and soil-moisture monitoring to explore the hydrology of the unsaturated zone and the influence of fracture density, hillslope gradient, and permeability contrasts within the saprolite development horizon on saprolite development.     

A mass transfer model of bauxite formation

The formation of bauxite due to weathering of a granitic protolith has been simulated by means of a one-dimensional flow and reaction model based on the mass transfer principle. The model couples mineral dissolution and precipitation reactions, speciation in solution, and advective solute transport in a porous medium. A very important aspect of the modeling study is the use of mineral reaction rates determined experimentally in the laboratory. The important effects of solution saturation state and pH have been incorporated into the kinetic rate laws governing the heterogeneous reactions. The values of these parameters have been obtained from the scientific literature to guarantee that realistic reaction rates are used in the simulations. Albite and quartz are the minerals that make up the parent rock in the model. Gibbsite, kaolinite, and a Na-mica (as a surrogate for smectite) are the secondary minerals that have been taken into account. Long-term simulations (>1 Ma) have been run, and the formation of a bauxitic profile, with an upper gibbsite-rich and a lower kaolinite-rich zone, is predicted. In early stages of the process (up to a few hundreds of thousands of years), both gibbsite and kaolinite precipitate directly from solution as a consequence of albite dissolution. In later stages, the bulk of gibbsite precipitation derives from the incongruent dissolution of kaolinite, while kaolinite precipitation is still caused by the dissolution of albite. This is also reflected by the formation of two reaction fronts in the profile. These results are compared with weathering sequences from the Los Pijiguaos bauxite deposit, Venezuela. The overlap between the gibbsite and kaolinite zones and the replacement of kaolinite by gibbsite are consistent with model calculations. Mechanical denudation has to be called upon to explain the limited thicknesses of the weathering profiles in the field. The role of mechanical erosion is supported by the presence of microsedimentary structures in the bauxite and the balance between dissolved and suspended loads in the streams draining the area.     

Hypoplastic modelling of moisture-sensitive weathered rockfill materials

For broken rock materials under stress the process of weathering and consequently the degradation of the solid hardness may be accelerated under water. Thus, the resistance of particles against abrasion and breakage can be strongly influenced by a change of the moisture content of the grains. The focus of this paper is on modelling the essential mechanical properties of moisture-sensitive weathered coarse-grained rockfill materials using a hypoplastic constitutive model. The model takes into account the current void ratio, the effective stress, the strain rate and a moisture-dependent degradation of the solid hardness. Creep and stress relaxation during the process of degradation of the solid hardness are also included. It is shown that the results obtained from numerical simulations are in good agreement with experiments carried out with weathered granite.     

Evidence for the prolonged existence of >100 MeV solar protons in coronal structures

Solar proton events (SPEs) of 1989–1992 accompanied by ground-level enhancements of the cosmic-ray intensity are analyzed. A diffusive-propagation model can well approximate the solar proton intensity at energies of 84–200 MeV measured on board the GOES-7 satellite during the first 15–20 hours of the development of an SPE, assuming several episodes of proton injection into interplanetary space over some hours. The detection of π⁰-decay gamma-ray emission during the flares of June 11 and 15, 1991 on board the CGRO and GAMMA-1 space observatories is the sole experimental evidence for the existence of protons with energies >100 MeV near the Sun over such extended times. The number of protons in the source is estimated for various times based on the propagation model. Moreover, this value is in qualitative and quantitative agreement with the number of protons required to generate the observed gamma-ray emission for the June 15, 1991 event (and in qualitative agreement for the June 11, 1991 event). This provides evidence that processes of prolonged trapping and/or acceleration of protons in coronal structures may be possible in other such events.     

滇东地区碳酸盐岩上覆风化层的元素地球化学特征及其成因讨论

碳酸盐岩风化形成的红土保存着喀斯特发展演化历史证据,同时也是喀斯特地区土壤研究的重要对象。文章选取云 南石林地区的两处典型碳酸盐岩剖面为研究对象,对主量元素,微量元素及稀土元素在风化层的迁移特征及分布规律进行 研究,为探究风化层的成因提供依据。结果显示：（1） 以Ti为参比元素的剖面迁移特征表明,两剖面的主量元素在成土过 程中有相似的迁移规律,多数表现为淋失;微量元素略有差异,富集淋失程度不一。（2） UCC 标准化蜘蛛图显示,相对于 基岩,风化层中的Ca和Sr均出现亏损;与UCC相比,Fe、Ti等元素轻微富集,Mg、Ca、Na、K、P等元素显示了强烈的亏 损特征。（3） 基岩与风化层的REE分布模式相似,但风化层的稀土相对富集,轻稀土元素间的分异较大而重稀土元素间的 分异较小,且SJC剖面的轻、重稀土元素比值大于QST剖面;稀土元素球粒陨石标准化后,SJC剖面的Eu为负异常,剖面 上部和下部出现Ce负异常;QST剖面Ce负异常,Eu明显负异常。（4） 元素含量变化和元素对Al-Ti、Al-Fe及Zr-Hf相关性 说明剖面上覆红土是下伏基岩风化的结果。研究结果显示,两个剖面的元素地球化学特征与基岩存在很好的继承性,风化 层是基岩原位风化的产物。     

梧州市巨厚层花岗岩风化壳垂直分带标准及工程地质特征研究

本文选择华南地区巨厚层花岗岩风化壳分布区的梧州市为研究区,旨在建立系统的、科学的、可操作性强的花岗岩风化壳垂直分带划分标准。在野外区域调查、钻探、原位试验、室内试验、综合研究的基础之上,建立了定性与定量复合判定的指标体系,对梧州市花岗岩风化壳进行了垂直分带以及工程地质特征研究。研究结果表明:(1)粒度分析法可以作为花岗岩风化壳垂直分带划分的方法之一,划分结果与原位试验划分结果具有很好的一致性;(2)残积土带、全风化带、强风化带中含量占比最大的土体分别是黏粒土、粉粒土、砂粒土。随着钻孔深度的增加,粒径相对较大的砾粒和砂粒含量占比逐渐增大,粒径相对较小的粉粒和黏粒含量占比逐渐减小。粒径0.05 mm为残积土带、全风化带、强风化带曲线交叉的分界处,该处土体含量百分比近似相等,揭示粒径0.05 mm值是花岗岩风化壳垂直分带划分的重要指标之一;(3)随着钻进深度的增加,圆锥动力触探试验击数与标准贯入试验击数同时增加,修正后的标准贯入击数N和圆锥动力触探击数N_63.5呈多项式相关性。本文建立了花岗岩风化壳垂直分带划分标准,给出了花岗岩风化壳土体地基承载力建议值,对花岗岩分布区的重大工程建设与工程地质特征参数的选取具有一定的指导与参照意义。     

Hydrogeochemical characteristics and its role in controlling arsenic mobilization in a shallow aquifer

The relevance of groundwater hydrogeochemistry to explain the occurrence and distribution of arsenic in groundwater is of great interest. The insightful discussions on the control of shallow groundwater (< 50 m) hydrogeochemistry in arsenic mobilization are known to be a viable tool to explain the arsenic menace in shallow groundwater. The present investigation emphasizes the hydrogeochemical driver and/or control over the reductive dissolution of Fe-bearing host minerals and thereby releasing arsenic into the shallow groundwater of the study area. The study suggests that hydrogeochemical evolution is mainly governed by carbonate minerals dissolution, silicate weathering, and competitive ion-exchange processes in the shallow aquifers (< 50 m). The present study also indicates the prevalence of carbonate minerals dissolution over silicate weathering. The emergence of Cl⁻ concentration in the shallow groundwater founds the possibilities of anthropogenic inputs into the shallow aquifers (< 50 m). The reducing environment in shallow aquifers (< 50 m) of the study area is evident in the reductive dissolution of Fe- bearing shallow aquifer minerals which absorb arsenic in the solid phase and mobilize arsenic onto shallow groundwater. The study opted for many statistical approaches to delineate the correlation among major and minor ionic constituents of the groundwater which are very helpful to understand the comprehensive mechanism of arsenic mobilization into shallow groundwater.

     

三峡库区万州段高切坡破坏模式和防护措施研究

高切坡是三峡库区新的地质灾害形式。通过对重庆库区万州区47个高切坡的调查和试验分析表明,万州高切坡主要表现为崩塌破坏、表层风化破坏、差异风化破坏、和土体滑塌破坏4种形式。影响破坏模式的因素主要是构成高切坡的组成物质及其性质、水文气象条件、高切坡的形态和治理时间等。针对不同的破坏类型提出相应的防治措施,以指导设计与施工。