Holocene Avulsions of the Euphrates River in the Najaf Area of Western Mesopotamia: Impacts on Human Settlement Patterns

We present a study that reconstructs the ancient courses of the Euphrates in part of the Mesopotamian floodplain west and southwest of the ancient site of Babylon. The focus is on tracing paleochannel courses, determining when these paleochannels were active, and understanding the patterns of avulsion. The research was carried out using a combination of geological, geomorphological, remote sensing, historical, and archaeological approaches. Fieldwork included “ground truthing” of the remote sensing work, manually drilling boreholes (up to 7 m in depth), sedimentary and geomorphological documentation and sample collection for radiocarbon dating. As a result, five main courses of the Euphrates in five different periods have been mapped in this area, including four previously unidentified and/or unlocated migrations that linked the different periods. The main courses are the Purattum Course (before 3100–1000 BC), the Arahtum Course (1000–125 BC), the Sura Course (125 BC to AD 1258), the Hilla Course (13th to 19th century AD), and the Hindiya Course (19th to 20th century AD). There has been an overall migration of the main channel from east to west across the study area over time. The location of avulsion nodes changed along the length of the river, mainly downstream over time, but with a cluster of avulsion events near Babylon and a notable man‐made interference in the 20th century at the Hindiya Barrage.     

Geoarchaeological study of the Phoenician cemetery of Tyre‐Al Bass (Lebanon) and geomorphological evolution of a tombolo

The geoarchaeological record of the Phoenician necropolis of Al Bass (Lebanon) provides information concerning the geomorphological evolution of a late Holocene tombolo. Physical and chemical analysis of sediments indicates that the cemetery (9th century B.C.) was located near a littoral lagoon, between the dunes of a cuspate spit pointing toward the island of Tyre. From the sea apex of this spit, the moles mentioned in historical chronicles were constructed. Once mainland and island were connected, at the northern coast (where the port of Sidon was located), a sediment trap was formed, which quickly filled with silt. Afterwards, an extensive field of sand dunes buried all the archaeological remains from Phoenician to Roman times. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The geology of the 2nd century A.D. Amphitheater Area of Catania,Italy: Historical Eruptions Affecting the Urban District

The amphitheater of Catania is one of the main architectural structures built during Roman domination of the town. It was constructed in two successive phases between the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. and fell into disuse from the second half of the 4th century. Detailed geological and petrographic investigations allow better geomorphological reconstruction of the area where the monument was built. In particular, the western and eastern portions of the amphitheater are built on prehistoric lava flows, named Barriera del Bosco and Larmisi, respectively. We infer that the choice of site to build the monument was highly influenced by the morphological setting of the area. In fact, the location at the contact between two lava flow fields facilitated excavation and removal of rocks due to the incoherence of the scoriaceous lateral border of the lava flows. Integrating both archaeological and geological data has revealed that a large number of Neolithic, Greek, and Roman sites are located in the lava fields of Barriera del Bosco and Larmisi within the present urban district of Catania, indicating that during its long history the city was directly impacted by only one lava flow, namely in A.D. 1669.     

Environmental deterioration and human agency in ancient Macedonia: A case study

Stobi, a city inhabited from at least the 4th century B.C. to the late 6th century A.D., is at the confluence of the Vardar and Crna Rivers, now in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Archaeological and geologic evidence was used in the 1970s by R. L. Folk to develop a scenario of local environmental degradation, resulting from a postulated widespread climate change (4th–8th centuries A.D.), as a major cause of the decline and eventual abandonment of Stobi. The data for increasingly xeric conditions, catastrophic floods, and mudslides along the Crna River are reviewed and other paleoenvironmental evidence is considered. Subsequent archaeological investigations and a refined chronology reveal repeated episodes of rebuilding along the Crna between periods of flooding. After that portion of the city was abandoned in the mid‐5th century, Stobi achieved new prosperity as reflected in the construction of large‐scale ecclesiastical architecture and houses outside the south city wall. Human agency and periodic extreme weather are proposed as causes of environmental degradation at Stobi. The city's demise is attributed mainly to hostile invasions, plague, earthquake, and the collapse of imperial administrative and economic networks. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Land Use History and Site Formation Processes at the Punic Site of Pauli Stincus in West Central Sardinia

The site of Pauli Stincus is located near the town of Terralba, on the inland shores of the Gulf of Oristano in west central Sardinia, Italy, and was occupied between the mid‐4th and the late 2nd century B.C. The site and its surroundings were the object of a joint archaeopedological and geomorphological study, which complemented the data from archaeological excavations. This study allowed us to evaluate the suitability of the different landscape and soil components for crop production in the Punic period. The discovery of a buried plow soil at the site's edge enabled us to identify a set of agricultural practices carried out by Punic farmers. These included the removal of sandy topsoil to cultivate deeper horizons enriched in illuvial clay, the use of a "sodbuster" or "rip ard," and the periodic burning of weeds, stubble, and other harvesting residues. The present study helped us to better understand the formation processes of the archaeological record at Pauli Stincus. Large quantities of allochtonous calcareous material were imported to the site from wet areas closer to the coast in order to produce earth‐based construction material, such as bricks and daub. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Historical environmental changes at phalasarna harbor,West Crete

The ongoing archaeological excavations that started in 1986 on the site of the harbor of Phalasarna have confirmed that the ancient port described as a closed harbor by ancient geographers is, due to the regional uplift of west Crete, now situated on dry land, about 6.6 m above sea level. In this paper, after summarizing the geological background, the main historical sources and recent archaeological results, new stratigraphical data obtained from the sediments filling the harbor basin are presented and discussed. The harbor was fortified in the second part of the 4th century B.C. It was a military port, probably a base for pirates, and was destroyed and abandoned in the second part of the first century B.C. After that time the harbor basin was rapidly silted by marine then terrestrial sedimentation. Deposits corresponding to two tsunami waves have been identified and ascribed to events occurring in 66 A.D. and 365 A.D., respectively. About 1530 ± 40 yr B.P., probably in 365 A.D., when west Crete was suddenly uplifted by 6–9 m, Phalasarna harbor was removed permanently from marine influence. Radiometric dating confirms that the harbor could not have been in use in Roman times, in contradiction with ancient Periploi, which continue to mention Phalasarna port until at least the second or third century A.D.     

The value of English geoconservation sites in understanding historical collections of lower and middle palaeolithic artefacts

Lower and Middle Paleolithic archaeological sites in England risk falling through the cracks between different types of heritage conservation, since they lack recognisable structures; these sites have often benefitted from protection under geoconservation, particularly through selection as Geological Conservation Review sites, and subsequent designation as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs). The geoconservation of key sites, particularly in the formative years of British geoconservation, has allowed combined geological and archaeological reinvestigation. This is of particular benefit to understanding Lower and Middle Paleolithic artefact assemblages, which were often collected in the later 19th–earlier 20th century and consequently lacked both detailed spatial or stratigraphic provenance and contextual geological information. As such, the ‘fine grained’ data which could be gleaned from such artefact collections was limited. Here we review the benefit of geoconservation in allowing the contextualisation of historical archaeological collections, focussing on six key English sites where geological and archaeological reinvestigation has led to important archaeological findings. In particular, the emerging evidence of chronological patterning in Lower and Middle Paleolithic artefacts makes the preservation of such deposits valuable to Quaternary science in general.     

Data‐fused digital bathymetry and side‐scan sonar as a base for archaeological inventory of submerged landscapes in the Rideau Canal,Ontario, Canada

Colonel By Lake, located near Kingston, Ontario, was created in the early 19th century during the construction of the Rideau Canal waterway. Canal flooding inundated a large area of the Cataraqui River lowlands, submerging important pre‐contact and colonial settlements. In order to gain a better understanding of the pre‐canal environment and its archaeological setting, a systematic bathymetry and side‐scan sonar survey was conducted over a 2‐km2 area of Colonel By Lake. A 2‐D digital bathymetric model (DBM) of the lake bottom was constructed and overlain with side‐scan mosaics to map the paleogeography of the river flood plain. The data‐fused sonar images clearly identify the submerged pre‐canal topography, including the former Cataraqui River channel, relict meanders, tree stump fields, and bedrock uplands defining the valley sides. By comparing the DBM with landscapes depicted in pre‐canal period maps (ca. 1828), the locations of several potential archaeological targets were identified. The DBM provides a basis for mapping submerged cultural resources in the Rideau and for predicting the location of undiscovered archaeological sites. The results show that integration of single‐beam bathymetric mapping with side‐scan imagery is an effective strategy for mapping submerged terrestrial landscapes and archaeological inventory in shallow water settings. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

New Sediment Cores Reveal Environmental Changes Driven by Tectonic Processes at Ancient Helike,Greece

According to various historical sources an earthquake and an associated tsunami wiped out the Greek city of Helike on the Gulf of Corinth in 373 B.C. This study combines stratigraphical data from a new series of sediment cores with archaeological findings of the Helike Project to better assess the fate of Helike. Abrupt lithological changes, for example, from coarse‐grained littoral facies at the base to fine‐grained lagoonal deposits, in three of the new cores suggest sudden formation of lagoonal or lacustrine conditions in the central delta during tectonic events of subsidence due to fault‐slip. These events date before c. 2550 B.C., before 348 cal. B.C.–64 cal. A.D. (probably 373 B.C.), and before 1437–1634 cal. A.D. (probably A.D. 1402). Vertically displaced isochronic surfaces between two neighboring cores may be related to active faulting of the fan‐delta north of the Western Helike Fault Zone in 373 B.C. and A.D. 1402. Although the Helike Project reported possible tsunami evidence in earlier cores and trenches, no unequivocal sedimentary traces of a tsunami were identified in the Classical horizons of the new cores.     

Geoarchaeological studies in Nara,Japan: The integrated findings

In this article, the authors summarize 20 years of scholarship and two field projects on geoarchaeology in Nara, Japan, carried out by researchers from 12 different institutions in 4 countries. The research goal was to test an aerial photographic reconstruction of surface landforms in the Nara Basin with subsurface data. Project A was conducted at Asawa; it tested, through geological coring, whether a suspected swampy backmarsh in the eastern basin existed and whether it would yield data on the transition to wet rice agriculture in the mid‐1st millennium B.C. Project B was conducted at Miwa; it tested, through geological coring and subsequent excavation, the nature of upland agricultural terrace formation in the southeastern basin and whether the suspected existence of a 4th‐century palace site could be confirmed. Two layers of carbonaceous clay at Asawa were dated to the Early (˜5000–3500 B.C.) and Final (˜1000‐300 B.C.) phases of the Jomon period. Pollen data revealed the establishment of an evergreen oak forest from 5,000 years ago and anthropogenic changes in forest cover from 2,000 years ago. Phytoliths from rice, millets, reeds, and bamboo were recovered in layers postdating the Final Jomon carbonaceous clay. A fault scarp with anthropogenic modification of the terraces was identified at Miwa. It was discovered that an incised stream valley had been infilled in the Medieval period at the same time surface layers were razed; the front of the terrace was extended in the premodern period. Remains were recovered from the Middle Yayoi (˜100 B.C.–A.D. 100) and the Medieval (˜A.D. 1185–1603) periods. However, as the terracing involved razing the early historic levels, no data were recovered on the alleged 4th‐century palace site. The significance of these findings lies in the identification of (a) a swampy backmarsh at Asawa, where initial agricultural efforts in growing wet rice in the basin may have occurred, confirming the aerial photographic reconstruction; and (b) hillside terracing activities at Miwa, from the Medieval period onwards, which have radically changed the configuration of the natural topography. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

A Geoarchaeological Survey of the Marine Extension of the Roman Archaeological Site Villa del Pezzolo,Vico Equense,on the Sorrento Peninsula,Italy

The Roman Villa on the Marina di Equa (Vico Equense, Sorrento Peninsula, Italy), built in the first century A.D., is an important coastal site where the geological effects of the A.D. 79 eruption of Vesuvius are combined with archaeological remains, thus representing an interaction of both human and natural events. At this site, a patrician Roman villa, located at the outlet of a steep V‐shaped valley on the northern flank of a ridge in the Lattari Mountains, was completely destroyed by the A.D. 79 eruption and by subsequent mud/debris flows and floods. During these catastrophic events, the villa was rebuilt twice, in the second and third centuries A.D., as shown by archaeological evidence on the beach. A marine geophysical survey was conducted to study the unexplored portion of this archaeological site. A geographical information system (GIS) analysis of integrated geophysical survey data has identified and mapped (in two and three dimensions) the major underwater archaeological structures on and below the seabed in the villa harbor. A map of the ancient port of the Roman villa has been created by correlating the submerged remains with the construction phases of the villa.     

Reconstructing Phreatic Palaeogroundwater Levels in a Geoarchaeological Context: A Case Study in Flanders,Belgium

The complex debate on prehistoric settlement decisions is no longer tackled from a purely archaeological perspective but from a more landscape‐oriented manner combined with archaeological evidence. Therefore, reconstruction of several components of the former landscape is needed. Here, we focus on the reconstruction of the groundwater table based on modeling. The depth of the phreatic aquifer influences, for example, soil formation processes and vegetation type. Furthermore, it directly influences settlement by the wetness of a site. Palaeogroundwater modeling of the phreatic aquifer was carried out to produce a series of full‐coverage maps of the mean water table depth between 12.7 ka and the middle of the 20th century (1953) in Flanders, Belgium. The research focuses on the reconstruction of the input data and boundary conditions of the model and the model calibration. The model was calibrated for the 1924–1953 time period using drainage class maps. Archaeological site data and podzol occurrence data act as proxies for local drainage conditions over periods in the past. They also served as a control on the simulated phreatic palaeogroundwater levels. Model quality testing on an independent validation data set showed that the model predicts phreatic water table levels at the time of soil mapping well (mean error of 1.8 cm; root mean square error of 65.6 cm). Simulated hydrological conditions were in agreement with the occurrence of archaeological sites of Mesolithic to Roman age at 96% of the validation locations, and also with the occurrence of well‐drained podzols at 97% of the validation locations.     

Historic Dead Sea Level Fluctuations Calibrated with Geological and Archaeological Evidence

The Dead Sea, the Holocene terminal lake of the Jordan River catchment, has fluctuated during its history in response to climatic change. Biblical records, calibrated by radiocarbon-dated geological and archaeological evidence, reinforce and add detail to the chronology of the lake-level fluctuations. There are three historically documented phases of the Dead Sea in the Biblical record: low lake levels ca. 2000–1500 B.C.E. (before common era); high lake levels ca. 1500–1200 B.C.E.; and low lake levels between ca. 1000 and 700 B.C.E. The Biblical evidence indicates that during the dry periods the southern basin of the Dead Sea was completely dry, a fact that was not clear from the geological and archaeological data alone.     

Raw Materials for Archaeological Pottery from the Campania Region of Italy: A Petrophysical Characterization

We performed petrophysical analyses on 34 clayey samples of different geological origin within the Campania region of Italy in order to determine possible sources of raw materials used to produce ancient pottery. Possible raw material sources can be grouped into high‐CaO clays (HCC) and low‐CaO clays (LCC). HCC are mainly represented by more recent (Miocene‐Pleistocene) basinal sediments whereas LCC tend to be associated with basinal, alluvial, and pyroclastic deposits. A chemical comparison between clayey raw materials, modern ceramic replicas, and Campanian archaeological ceramics of several typologies (common ware, cooking ware, fine tableware, amphorae, and bricks) from 8th century B.C. to the Middle Ages (a total of 350 ceramic samples) indicates that HCC were extensively used for common wares and that these were either mixed with temper or levigated. In contrast, most of the LCC were used for the production of cookware. We also analyzed the technological potential of the sampled raw materials, taking into consideration their actual and possible uses. We observed that most HCC deposits were well suited for tableware and amphorae, whereas LCC were better for cookware and some fine tableware.     

Geological and archaeological chronology of a late Holocene coastal enclosure: The Sanguinet lake (SW France)

Sanguinet lake is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a wide Holocene coastal dunes system in SW France. The present day lake level is 21 m above mean sea level (msl). It formed when aeolian sand closed the mouth of the small La Gourgue river which gradually became a lagoon and then a lake. Dated sub‐lacustrine archaeological remains (human settlements, canoes, and wooden architectural structures), as well as paleoenvironmental evidence (drowned tree stumps and lagoonal deposits exposed on the beach) are used to interpret the formation and chronology of lake level rise during the past 4000 years. Around 2000–1650 B.C., the river flowed into a lagoon or an estuary which connected with the ocean west of the present Sanguinet Lake. Its level was affected by the tide, which ranged between 2 m below and 3 m above msl. The accumulation of aeolian sand before 1500–1000 B.C. began to close the connection with the sea. At this time, the elevation of the surface of the lake water was approximately 5 m above msl, but it still remained connected to the ocean. Around 1000 B.C., the lake level rose quickly by 1 to 2 m during a period of renewed mobility of the coastal aeolian sand, and continued to rise slowly until about 100 A.D. when there was a gradual closure of the lake outlet. This rise forced people who were living on the lake shore and along the rivers to move to higher land along the valley. The nearby Gallo‐Roman site of Losa was settled at the end of the 1st century B.C.; then the final blocking of the outlet occurred because of spit growth as a result of north‐south littoral drift accompanied by the deposit of aeolian sand. This led to the lake level rising rapidly. Consequently, Losa was abandoned in the 3rd century A.D. and ruins of its temple (at 17 m above msl) were submerged in the 6th century. Further oscillations of the lake level probably correspond to water table fluctuations before it became stable at around 1000 A.D. The highest lake level (23.35 m) was reached during the 18th century as a consequence of modern dune formation, and thus was artificially reduced to 21 m in 1840 by construction of an overflow channel. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Occupation horizons found in the search for the ancient Greek city of Helike

In 373 B.C. an earthquake and seismic sea wave destroyed and submerged Helike, the principal Greek city on the southwestern shore of the Gulf of Corinth. Our sonar survey of the seafloor in the area where ancient sources located Helike, southeast of Aigion, showed no evidence of a submerged city. We concluded that the site must now lie in the alluvial deposits of the adjacent coastal plain. Accordingly, we used bore hole drilling and geophysical techniques to look for buried occupation horizons on land. The bore hole cores yielded numerous ceramic fragments and remains of walls, ranging from near the surface to about 15 m deep, concentrated in an area of some 2 km² on the upper part of the delta between the Selinous and Kerynites Rivers. Ceramic and organic samples from the cores yielded ages ranging from Byzantine to Early Helladic times. A shallow auger hole brought to light a superb fragment of an architectural terracotta statue from an Archaic building, ca. 600 B.C. Near the center of the ceramic-bearing area, we discovered by magnetometry a large Roman building and began its excavation. It may belong to a Roman settlement that Pausanias visited at the site of Classical Helike. The deeper layers of the excavation yielded black-glazed vase fragments from the 5th century B.C. and potsherds from Protogeometric and Mycenaean times. The overall results suggest that most of the Roman to Classical horizons lie within about 6 m of the surface, whereas Bronze Age horizons range down to 15 m. While we have yet to determine by excavation whether the occupation horizons include the center of a city, this area appears to be a strong candidate for the site of ancient Helike. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Medieval Dark Earth in an Active Alluvial Setting from the Uffizi Gallery Complex in Florence,Italy

Archaeological excavations at the Biblioteca Magliabechiana, which is part of the Uffizi gallery complex in Florence (Tuscany, central Italy), exposed Dark Earth deposits between alluvial sediments of the nearby Arno River. The term Dark Earth refers to thick, dark colored, and seemingly homogeneous deposits occurring in urban settings throughout Europe, broadly dated to the post‐Roman period. The stratigraphic sequence of the Biblioteca Magliabechiana was investigated by integrating geomorphological, chronological, and archaeological information with micromorphological and soil analytical data. This combination of approaches resulted in the identification of an early phase of Dark Earth formation (7th century A.D.) during which the area was characterized by the accumulation of manure or night soil in wet peri‐fluvial conditions. After a phase of abandonment, Dark Earth accretion resumed (10th to early 11th century A.D.), at this stage due primarily to the dumping of domestic waste. Subsequent progressive abandonment of the area was followed by the deposition of alluvium, probably during the major flood of November 4, 1177. The present study demonstrates that Dark Earth is the outcome of strong bioturbation and human reworking acting on anthropogenic deposits and possibly on alluvial sediments.     

Late Holocene Sea Level Reconstructions Based on Observations of Roman Fish Tanks,Tyrrhenian Coast of Italy

We present estimates for late Holocene relative sea level change along the Tyrrhenian coast of Italy based on morphological characteristics of eight submerged Roman fish tanks (piscinae) constructed between the 1st century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. Underwater geomorphological features and archaeological remains related to past sea level have been measured and corrected using recorded tidal values. We conclude that local sea level during the Roman period did not exceed 58 ± 5 cm below the present sea level. These results broadly agree with previous observations in the region but contrast with recent analysis that suggests a significantly larger sea level rise during the last 2000 years. Using a glacial isostatic adjustment model, we explain how regional sea level change departs from the eustatic component. Our calculation of relative sea level during the Roman period provides a reference for isolating the long‐wavelength contribution to sea level change from secular sea level rise. Precise determination of sea level rise in the study area improves our understanding of secular, instrumentally observed, variations across the Mediterranean. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Short contribution: Buried Canopic channel identified near Egypt's Nile delta coast with radar (SRTM) imagery

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data, with ground‐based geologic investigations, define the geographic position of the relict Canopic channel in Egypt's NW Nile delta. Two sinuous channel segments south of Abu Qir Bay are observed on a radar image: a more sinuous trace (36 km in length) west of Idku lagoon, and an eastern one (˜20 km), reaching the lagoon's southeast corner. Sediment cores recovered along channel traces show sand‐rich deposits (to > 4 m thick) beneath the surface, in contrast with silty muds in areas away from channels. Historic and archaeological findings indicate that the Ptolemaic Roman city of Schedia once lay directly along the Canopic that channeled water from the 3rd to 2nd centuries B.C. until ˜5th century A.D., after which Nile water was displaced to the east via Bolbitic and, later, Rosetta branches. Identification of buried, but well‐defined, Canopic channels provides baselines for renewed archaeological exploration in this delta sector. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Palaeogeographic Changes at Lake Chokrak on the Kerch Peninsula,Ukraine, during the Mid‐ and Late‐Holocene

This project has reconstructed the palaeogeographic and environmental evolution of Lake Chokrak on the Kerch Peninsula, Ukraine, during the mid‐ and late‐Holocene. This record has been evaluated in association with a regional archaeological data set to explore human–environment interactions over this period. The results show major changes in the palaeogeographic setting of Lake Chokrak since the 3rd millennium B.C., when the postglacial marine transgression had started to fill the study area. Microfaunal analyses reveal the long persistence of an open marine embayment that only became separated from the Sea of Azov when a sand barrier developed during the late 2nd millennium B.C. When colonizing the Black Sea region after the 8th century B.C., the Greek settlers erected a fortification with a small settlement on a promontory that was by then a peninsula‐like headland extending into the lake. The colonists abandoned their settlement at the end of the 1st millennium B.C. when the depth of the surrounding lake decreased from 1.5 m to less than 1 m. Today, Lake Chokrak dries up completely during summer. A detailed relative sea level (RSL) curve for the northern coast of Kerch has been established. Sea level reached its highest position at the present day. Since the 3rd millennium B.C., sea level continuously rose, without any of the previously postulated regression/transgression cycles. The RSL curve indicates differential subsidence rates within short distances in relatively stable areas, exceeding 40 cm per 1000 years. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.